kingdoms of Khwarasm and Bokhara, and settled at Meshed, which no made his capital; entertaining suspicions of his eldest son, he had his eyes put out, and remorse for the crime made him franticly ferocious. Vast numbers of people, of every rank, fell victims to his rage, until some of his officers conspired against, and assassinated him, a. D. 1747.

The death of Nadir Shah was followed by a period of confusion. Ahmed Shah, one of his officers, seized upon Khorasan and Cabul, and established the kingdom of the Affghans. Mohammed Husein Khan, a Persian chief, occupied the eastern shore of the Caspian; and Ali, the nephew of Nadir, was for a short time king of Persia. Four kingdoms were now formed: 1, Khorasan and Segistan; 2, Kandahar, or the east ern provinces; 3, Farsistan, or the western provinces; and, 4, Georgia. The latter, for the most part, retained its own princes, who at length submitted to Russia. In Kandahar and the East, Ahmed Abdallah founded the empire of Affghanistan. He was victorious at Panniput, and ruled. with absolute sway in India. His residence was Cabul. He was succeeded in 1753 by Timur; the latter by Zeman. In the two other kingdoms the Curd Kerim Khan, who had served under Nadir, and was of low extraction, succeeded in establishing tranquillity, after long and bloody wars, by subduing Mohammed Khan, who fled, and perished at Mazanderan. His wisdom, justice, and warlike skill gained him the love of his subjects and the esteem of his neighbours. He did not call himself khan but vekil (regent.) He fixed his residence at Shiraz in 1765, and died in 1779. New disturbances arose after his death. His brothers attempted to get possession of the throne, to the exclusion of his sons. A prince of the blood, Ali Murat, occupied it in 1784; but a eunuch, Aga Mohammed, a man of ancient family and uncommon abilities, had made himself independent in Mazanderan. Ali Murat, who marched against him, died in consequence of a fall from his horse, and left the sceptre to his son Yafar, who was defeated by Aga Mohammed at Jezd Kast, and fled to Shiraz, where he perished in an insurrection. His son Luthf Ali made several desperate efforts to recover his throne; but Aga Mohammed was victorious, and appointed his nephew Baba Khan his successor, who reigned under the name of Feth Ali Shah. He fixed his residence. at Teheran, in order to be nearer the Russians, who threatened him i Georgia and the neighbouring provinces.

By the peace of 1812, the Persians were obliged to cede to Russia the whole of Daghestan, the Khanats of Kuba, Shirvan, Baku, Salian, Talishah, Karaachb, and Gandsha, resigning all claims to Shularegi, Kharthli, Kachethi, Imeritia, Guria, Mingrelia and Abchasia, and were obliged to admit the Russian flag on the Caspian Sea. Feth Ali (born in 1768), a Turkoman of the tribe of Kadshar Shah, was induced by the heir-apparent, Abbas Mirza, and his favourite, Hussein Kuli Khan, who believed Russia to be involved in domestic troubles, to attack that power in 1826. The Persians invaded the Russian territories, without a declaration of war, instigated part of the Mohammedan population to insurrection, and advanced as far as Elizabethpol; but they were defeated in several battles, and the Russians under Paskewitch conquered the country to the Araxes, which, by the treaty of Tourkmantchai, in 1829, was ceded to Russia.

On the death of Futteh Ali Shah, in 1835, his grandson, the present sovereign, son of the prince-royal, Abbas Mirza, succeeded to the throne and, profiting by the dear-bought experience of his predecessor, is under stood to be favourable to the interests of Russia, or, what is more likely considers it prudent to keep on good terms with a neighbour who has it so much in his power to injure him. The late Abbas Mirza had. with the consent of the East India Company, raised and disciplined a body of troops in Azerbijan, with a view of opposing the Russians; but on the

commencement of the war with Turkey in 1822, as British officers could not serve against a power on friendly terms with Great Britain, they were dismissed; but the regular Persian army marched against the Russians, and were successful until they were disabled by the cholera. Yet it is clear that their army is still very inefficient, compared with what it formerly was; for when, in 1837, Mohammed Mirza, the present shah, made every effort to bring a large force against Herat, the besieging army did net exceed thirty-five thousand men of every description, which was considerably less than half the number of efficient troops engaged with the Russians in the previous war.

The Greeks greatly interested themselves to learn the manners, the laws, and the form of government of the Persians, and found that they adored the sun and moon; they erected neither temple nor altar, nor statue, to their gods. Their Magi were their sages and their priests. They held at Babylon a solemn feast to Venus. The kings and lords of Persia kept a great number of concubines; and such was their jealousy, that not only the sight of them was forbidden to all persons without the seraglio, but every one of them was separated and confined under a strong guard. The king of Persia assumed the title of the Great King. His authority, however, was not without bounds; the important business of the nation was debated in a sovereign council, composed of seven principal lords, who always accompanied the prince. The Greeks observed among the Persians a great attention to justice, the king frequently rendering it himself to his subjects, and not confiding in any instance this material duty of the prince but to such persons as were profoundly learned in the law, and who could not attain the eminence of the judgment-seat under the age of fifty years. The lives of slaves did not altogether depend on the will of their masters; and the pain of death could not be pronounced against them for their first fault. This empire, according to the best information, was divided into one hundred and twentyseven governments. The lords who presided over them were called satraps (similar to viceroys of our day), to whom the king assigned a considerable revenue. Agriculture was particularly honoured by the Persians; there was in every district officers appointed by the state to overlook the cultivation of the earth. The conquered nations supported the expenses of the state, the Persians themselves being exempt from every taa and impost.

The present government of Persia is an absolute monarchy: but the right of succession, as in ancient times, and as in all Asiatic monarchies, is undefined, and generally rests with the strongest, whence a perpetual recurrence of bloodshed and anarchy arises. The religion is Mahommedan, and the Persians are zealous followers of the Sheah persuasion, or those who look upon Ali, the son-in-law of the prophet, as his legitimate successor. The people consist of four classes; the first are the native tribes, who live in tents, and are migratory with the seasons-as the Zend, Affshar, and others; the second are similar tribes, of Mongol or Turkoman origin, settled in the country, of which the Kajar, or royal tribe, is one; the third are the inhabitants of the towns, and those of the country who follow agriculture; and the fourth are Arab tribes, who occupy the country toward the Persian Gulf.

When the Arabs overran Persia, about the middle of the seventh century, three languages were spoken in the country, Parsee, Peh vi, and Deri, exclusive of the Zend, or language dedicated to religion. The Persians make high claims to ancient literature; but the greater part of hat which escaped destruction in the time of Alexander, was destroyed nder the caliphs. Persian civilization declined during the first period of he Arabian dominion. But learning revived in Persia in the time of the Abassides, and learned men and poets were encouraged by personai fa

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vours and distinctions, till the time of Genghis Khan, in the thirteenth century. Under Timur, in the fourteenth century, and the Turks in the fifteenth, it continually declined, and in the sixteenth was almost entirely extinct. The oppressions and disturbances to which Persia has since been continually subject, have prevented the revival of learning. No oriental nation possesses richer literary treasures of the earlier periods, parti cularly in poetry and history; but their acquaintance with useful science or the fine arts, is most crude and limited indeed

ARABIA.

THE history of the Arabians, called by some "the children of the east, is one of an unstable, but interesting people. Connected with the early portions of the Sacred History, and reflecting strong evidences of the truth of that history, we find in its annals the descendants of the patriarchs. Ishmael and Esau, in particular, throw an interest over the map of this country, and carry us back to that era when the hope of the promised seed was the star of guidance to the chosen family. Various are the tribes that peopled this country; from three of these the present Arabians are supposed to be descended-two of them from the race of Ishmael, and the third from Cush, the son of Ham. Of the early history of these wandering people, it may be truly said, in the language of Scripture, respecting Ishmael, "he has been a wild man; his hand has been against every man, and every man's hand has been against him." In vain have the respective powers of the successive empires of the world attacked this wonderful people. The Egyptians, the Greeks, the Persians, the Romans, especially the conqueror of Jerusalem, have in turn failed in their gigantic efforts to subdue them. Their subjugation has never been effected; they occupy the same seats, cultivate the same soil and retain very much the old habits and customs of their patriarchal founders.

The religion of the early Arabs partook to a considerable extent, of that of the Hebrews, but so far from being strict observers of the laws of Moses, they came under the denomination of idolaters, for, although they acknowledged one supreme God, they worshipped the sun, moon, and stars as subordinate deities. This religion has been called Sabianism, from Sabi, a supposed son of Seth. The Arabs also worshipped images, and had their tutelary guardians for appointed times and seasons of the year. After the destruction of Jerusalem, by Titus, many of the Jews took refuge in Arabia, where they made no inconsiderable number of proselytes; so that, in a century or two, the Jewish Arabs became a very powerful section of the whole people. In a similar way, converts to Christianity were made; for in the persecution which the followers of Christ suffered in the third century, many fled to Arabia, where they preached their doctrines with such zeal and success, that in a short time they had made great progress there. The faith of the Persian Magi, of which Zoroaster was the founder, had long before been embraced by numerous Arab tribes; so that, in the sixth century, the population of Arabia was divided into Sabians, Magians, Jews, and Christians. As the propagator of a new code of religion, falsely ascribed to divine revela

tion, the celebrated Mahomet stands conspicuous in their annals. Amongst them he made many converts, and his successors have for centures maintained the ascendancy he founded. Of this extraordinary man, however, and the successful missión he undertook, it is not necessary here to enter into the details; having specially devoted a considerable space to an account of the rise and progress of Mahometanism, at the conclusion of our historic sketch of the Ottoman empire-to which the reader can turn for further information.

In many respects this new religion was but little more than an adaptation of various parts of the religions previously existing in Arabia (if we except the idolatrous worship of the Sabian); the people in general, therefore, were in some measure fitted to receive it; and, when the sensual character of the Mohammedan paradise is considered, its rapid promulgation is less surprising than would otherwise at first sight appear. But, besides the delights which were to attend upon all who perished in battle in the cause of the "true faith," he made it incumbent upon all his followers to spread his doctrine by the sword, or to pay tribute for their unbelief. The attractions of plunder had charms which the Arabs could not withstand, consequently great numbers flocked to his standard. No caravan dared approach the place of his resort, without the danger of being pillaged; and by making a trade of robbing, he learned insensibly how to conquer. Of his soldiers, and even his vanquished enemies, he made disciples, giving to them the name of Mussulmen; that is to say, faithful. Having now become a great general, and an eloquent preacher, he took Mecca; and the greater part of the strong places and castles of Arabia. fell under the power of his arms.

Mahomet was assisted in his wars by Abubeker, his father-in-law; by Ali, his cousin and son-in-law; and by Omar, and Othman; and in twentythree years from the commencement of his career, he found all Arabia had embraced his doctrine, and submitted to his government. He intended Ali, who had married his daughter Fatima, as his successor; but Abubeker, on account of his age, and by the interest of Omar and Oth man, was chosen. This election of Abubeker gave birth to the schisms and civil wars which followed. The successors of Mahomet took the title of caliphs, or vicars of the prophet. Full of that fire or zeal which generally accompanies and inspires a new religion, they spread into dif ferent countries their doctrine and their power. Persia and Greece were among the first to suffer; Damascus, Antioch, and Syria followed. They then penetrated into Palestine, and took Jerusalem. They destroyed en tirely the monarchies of Persia and the Medes of Korasan, of Diarbeck of Bactriana, and Mesopotamia: nor was their progress less successful in Africa; they subdued all the coast to the west of Egypt; and Egypt itself submitted to their government, together with the islands of Cyprus, Rhodes, Candia, Sicily, Malta, and many others.

It appears that in Asia and Africa, at different times, there were upwards of fifty caliphs, successors of Mahomet, every one of whom pretended to be his descendant, and the true interpreter of the law. The greater part of these caliphs sunk into luxury and effeminacy, confided the management of the government to their emirs, and the principal officers of the palace. The caliph had at last little more to do than to take cogni zance of matters of religion, and in all public prayers his name was first used. Thus had the enormous power of these rulers become weak by their indolence, so that it generated into a mere title, and ended in annihilation. By imposture and fanaticism the Arabian dominion rose into importance, and, like other gigantic empires, it fell by its own unwieldiness. Spain, Egypt, and Africa were soon engaged in effecting their independence. Ere long the caliphs found it necessary to call to their aid those wild hordes of Tartars and Turks who had partially received the doctrines

of the prophet, and from them they chose a body of mercenary troops to guard their frontiers and protect their persons. For a few generations they by this means held together their tottering power; but their auxiliaries coveted the possessions of those whom they assisted, and the over grown empire gradually crumbled away, till a Tartar army, in 1258, cap tured Bagdad, and put an end to the nominal existence of the caliphate The religion of Mahomet was untouched; but the power of the 66 comman der of the faithful," was transferred from the caliphs of Bagdad to the Turkish sultans; while the heads of the different tribes continued to govern their subjects as they had governed them before.

In the eighteenth century, a reformation was commenced by a sheik, called Mahomet Ibu Abdoulwahab, who converted to his views the sheik of the Arabians, Ebn Saaoud. The reformation was extended, and its progress was marked by the demolition of several towns, and the massacre of thousands of people. The son of the Saaoud, Abdelaagis, sent an expedition against Mecca, which he completely destroyed, excepting the sacred temple. He captured also Medina, where he was assassina ted-a deed which his son, Saaoud, avenged by seizing the accumulated treasures of ages stored in that city, by means of which he made himself master of all Arabia.

THERE is probably no existing nation whose history is less accurately known or more inquisitively sought after, than that of China. The most startling statements as to the antiquity of the nation, and the number of its population, have been gravely put into circulation by grave writers, as though the "omne ignotum pro magnifico" were not a satirical remark, but a philosophical command. More, probably, of authentic information upon the subject of this singular people has been acquired during the last half century, than during the whole lapse of the preceding ages. Marco Polo and Du Halde, subjected as they now are to the correction of Dr. Morrison, Gutzlaff, Latrobe, and other able European residents in China, may safely be taken as our guide, though were they not thus corrected, they would lead into frequent and very gross error. The Chinese writers pretend to trace back their government to a period anterior to the Flood; a ridiculous absurdity which we should not feel called upon to notice, but that European writers have, without going to the full extent of Chinese extravagance, admitted their existence as a nation considerably more than two thousand years before Christ. Its early history, indeed, like that of most other nations of any considerable antiquity, seems to be an imaginative distortion of a few truths, mixed up with a vast number of bare and mere fictions. Their founder and first monarch they affirm to have been Fohi, who is presumed by many writers to have been the same with Noah. The eastern mountains of Asia they take to be the Ararat of Scripture; and they assert that, as the waters subsided, Noah followed the course of the rivers to the south until he arrived at China, where