no one had greater claims to indulgence than another. crystallography; the second are the rocks and The intercourse of Sparta with other nations was earths, which belong to the province of geognosy. forbidden, and few were permitted to travel. The In the mineral kingdoms four classes are dis youths were intrusted to the publick master as soon tinguished; the first comprehends saline or acidas they had attained the seventh year, and their iferous substances, which are composed of an acid education was left to the wisdom of the laws. united to an earth or an alkali, and sometimes to They were taught early to think, to answer in a laconick manner, to attempt to excel in repartee. They were encouraged to steal, and theft was only punished for being discovered. Thus we are told that a youth who carried off a fox beneath his cloak, permitted the animal to gnaw into his vitals, rather than disclose his theft by dropping the prize. Having established his laws, and engaged the citizens not to alter them until his return, he left his country, and, by a voluntary death, rendered that event impossible; thus securing, as far as in his power, the perpetuity of his institutions. The laws of Lycurgus were abrogated by Philopomen, but soon after re-established by the Romans. Dido, also called Elissa, was a daughter of Belus, king of Tyre, and married her uncle Sichæus. Her husband having been murdered by Pygmalion, the successor of Belus, the disconsolate princess, with a number of Tyrians, set sail in quest of a settlement. A storm drove her fleet on the African coast, and there she founded, or enlarged a city, that became much celebrated in the annals of history. both. The second contains the earthy substances, into the composition of which earths alone enter, or sometimes an earth united to an alkali; in the third class are placed all inflammable substances which are not metallick; substances hitherto imperfectly analyzed, but which may be distinguished by the property which they possess, of burning, with decomposition, or of evaporating. The fourth class embraces the metallick substances known by their brilliancy, by their great specifick gravity, and in part, by their ductility and malleability. In considering the mineral kingdom, in so far as it regards physical geography, we can only glance generally at the genera most abundant in nature, and the species most remarkable for their physical qual ities. The carbonate of lime, that is, lime combined with carbonick acid, and also called calcareous spar, is the most abundant of any known mineral substance on the earth. It forms one of the constituent principles of rocks; is the substance of coral, the finest marble, and beautiful crystals. Sulphated lime, or Her beauty, as well as the fame of her enterprise, lime combined with sulphurick acid, is commonly gained her many admirers, and her subjects wished called gypsum, or plaster stone, when mixed with to compel her to marry Iarbas, king of Mauritania, carbonated lime. When crystallized, it is called by whom they were threatened with war. Dido re- selenite. Barytes and strontites afford those magquested three months for consideration, and, during nificent crystals which line the cavities in the beds that time, she erected a funeral pile, as if wishing, of sulphur in the valleys of Noto and of Mazzara by a solemn sacrifice, to appease the manes of in Sicily. Nitrate of potass or salt-petre is comSichæus, to whom she had avowed eternal fidelity.posed of vegetable alkali or potass, nitrick acid, and When her preparation was completed, she stabbed water. It is found in cellars and deposited on the herself on the pile, in presence of her people, and surface of old walls. Muriate of soda, or common by this desperate feat, obtained the name of Dido, salt, is composed of soda, muriatick acid and water. valiant woman. The poets have made Æneas and It is spread throughout nature in an abundance corDido contemporaneous, but this is only a fiction, al-responding to its extensive utility. There are imlowed perhaps by the rules of their art. mense masses of it in Poland, Hungary, Austria, Bavaria, Hanover, England, and Spain. Borax is found in Thibet, Nepaul, Persia, Tartary, and Saxony. Carbonate of soda, called natron, is found in lakes in Egypt, Hungary, and the plains north of the Caspian. It sometimes cover the plains with a slight afflorescence. Sal-ammoniac, comes from Egypt and Persia. Alum, which is called alkalinesulphated alumina, is found by itself only in very small quantities, but it is procured from certain earths and stones impregnated with it. A Danish missionary has brought from Greenland a substance, which has been called cryolite, and which melts like ice in the flame of a candle; it is the fluate of alumine and soda. Isaiah was the son of Amos, and of the lineage of David. He prophesied from 735 to 681 B. C. during the reigns of several kings of Judah. He is the greatest and the sublimest of the prophets. He reproved the sinners of his day with boldness, and exposed the many vices that prevailed in the nation. He is called the evangelical prophet, from his frequent allusion to, and prediction of gospel times. Ile is said to have been cut in two with a wooden saw, by the cruel king Manasseh. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. The simple substances which compose the solid parts of the globe. 1. Saline, earthy, and inflammable sub stances. The various substances of which the solid parts of the earth are formed, are either simple, that is, formed of the same chymical elements, and having for their nucleus the same integrant molecule; or aggregate, that is, composed of two or more simple substances. The first of these substances are minerals, the objects of the sciences of mineralogy and The first species of carthy substances which attracts our attention, is that of quartz. When it is found in grains, it is of no value except in forming roads; when these grains are united, they form silicious sandstone. In certain shapes and under the operation of certain causes, it is raised to the rank of crystalline flints, and rock crystal. These crystals are found in great purity in Madagascar. When of a violet or purple colour, the rook crystal be comes amethyst; when blue, it is sapphire; when it assumes the colour of rose, it is the ruby; when yellow it is the occidental topaz. Quartz agate, POETRY. It usually called silex, includes the following varieties; found in veins, in powder, striated masses and crysthe blue and grey chalcedony; the red cornelian; tals, and at the mouth of many volcanoes. The the green chrysoprase. They give the name of diamond is a combustible substance; and anthracite, onyx to agates formed of two translucid stripes. which appears to have the same principle for its The coarse quartz agate is used for gun-flints and basis as the diamond, namely, pure carbon. Bitumen, mill-stones. Spal, is a milky resinous quartz, of in a liquid state, commonly bears the name of pevarying colours. Jasper is a quartz agate, blended troleum, or mineral tar, and when it is white, that of with argil or clay, and a little iron, which gives it a naphtha. There are springs of it; it floats somevariety of colours. Arenaceous quartz, or quartz in times upon the surface of the waters; it is said that the form of sand, covers almost entirely the bottom there is a lake of this description in Mesopotamia. of the sea, and forms the deserts. Of this species In some places it is drawn up in buckets from wells glass is made. dug for the purpose. On drying it becomes solid Almost all the precious stones are composed of pitch, when it is called asphaltum. Pit-coal appears alumine or pure argil. The ruby, sapphire, and to be bitumen united to an earthy base. Coal is topaz, consist of ninety-eight parts of alumine, and found in various parts of the earth, where the primtwo of iron. The beautiful green emerald of Peru, itive and secondary rocks join, and is commonly and the common beryl, have both the same basis, known. Jet seems to be a fossil wood, and resemnamely, silex, aluinine, glucine and lime; but the bles hardened asphaltum. The most celebrated of colouring principle in the emerald is chrome, and in all the bituminous substances, is yellow amber. the beryl, iron. Garnets contain a large proportion | This substance was formerly found on the eastern of iron; are transparent, and of a bright red and coasts of the Baltick sea, where it seemed to have purple violet colour. The diamond, which is now been thrown by the waves, but is now found inconsidered a combustible substance, consists of pure land. The largest piece ever known was found carbon. It is most abundant in the East Indies, and twelve miles from the sea, and weighs 13 pounds, in South America. Feldspar forms the base of a and is preserved in the royal museum of Berlin. multitude of rocks, and predominates in those of is now worked in quarries in East Pomerania, and primitive formation, constituting at least two thirds other places. It is also found with lignite along the of the substance of granite. Extensive mountains shores of our Southern States, particularly at Cape are sometimes solely composed of it. It is com- Sable, Maryland. posed principally of silex and alumine, with small proportions of lime and potash. It cuts glass, is phosphorick, and emits sparks when struck with steel. It is one of the substances of which the Chinese manufacture porcelain. Petrosilex or rock flint, resembles feldspar. Amphibole, though less common than feldspar, holds a no less distinguished rank among the substances which compose the primitive rocks. Mica is a substance remarkable for its metallick brilliancy. It is transparent, and the Siberians use it in their windows instead of glass. Talc, which differs from mica by the greasiness of its surface, is also less hard; it is easily scraped with a knife. The tale of Venice furnishes a powder which renders the skin smooth, and is employed as a cosmetick. Talc is commonly called soap stone. Asbestos, also called amianthus, appears to be produced from the decomposition of primitive rocks, among which it is oftenest found. The asbestos which is found in the mountains of Tarantaise, in Savoy, forms silky filaments of about a foot in length. It appears like fine white silk. The ancients spun it, and made towels, napkins, and head-dresses of it. When these became soiled by use, they were thrown into the fire, which did not destroy the substance of the asbestos, and upon being taken out, were found to be whiter than if they had been washed. In the funeral obsequies of kings and emperours, the dead body was enveloped with clothes of asbestos, before it was placed on the funeral pile; and thus the ashes were obtained quite unmixed. Asbestos abounds in Corsica and Russia. There are a great number of other earthy substances of less importance, which it were tedious to enumerate, We come now to the inflammable substances which enter into the solid parts of the globe. Among these we may enumerate sulphur, which is THE BIBLE.-WHLLIAM LEGGETT. His blood-wrung spoils must gleam, His life a vanished dream! Then hear him with his gasping breath Fool! wouldst thou stay the arm of dath? No, no! the soul ne'er found relief A star whose lustre gilds the grave, 66 "Had she been true, Would Heaven make such another wor CHYMISTRY. NITROGEN. The next of the four gaseous simple substances, which we shall describe, is Nitrogen (or, as it has sometimes been named, Azote*). Like hydrogen, it belongs to the electro-positive class, being attracted by the negative pole of the Voltaick pile. petually renewed, and its proportion maintained, by an adaptation of means to the end so nicely adjusted, as to form one of the greatest wonders where all is admirable. There are no known means of making nitrogen and oxygen combine directly in a more intimate manner; and this is probably one provision for the permanence and salubrity of the air we breathe; as It constitutes four-fifths of the atmosphere of our such compounds otherwise obtained are all noxious, globe, and may most readily be obtained for exami- and most of them corrosive and poisonous. Indicanation by removing the oxygen with which it is tions of such a direct union have, indeed, been obmixed, by the action of some superiour affinity. tained by passing strong electrick sparks through The residue of the atmospherick air, in which phos- portions of common air, but it was effected with phorus has been suffered to burn out, after stand-great labour and perseverance. ing a little while over water, consists of tolerably pure nitrogen; or the oxygen may be absorbed by allowing the air to stand in a receiver over a mixture of equal weights of iron filings, and sulphur made into a paste with water. Nitrogen gas is distinguished by negative characters, rather than by any active properties. It is colourless, inodorous, and tasteless; it is not. absorbed by water, or only in very minute portions; no animal can live in it; it is not inflammable, and it instantly extinguishes all burning bodies intro duced into it. It is a little lighter than atmospherick air, 100 cubic inches weighing 29.7 grains. NITROGEN WITH OXYGEN. Nitrogen may be mixed with oxygen in any proportion; but four parts by volume of the former, and one of the latter, form a mixture resembling atmospherick air in all its properties. The atmosphere also contains a variable proportion of vapour of water as we have already stated, and very minute portions of other matters which will be mentioned hereafter its essential characters are, however, derived from these two ingredients. The invariable uniformity of this mixture is one of the most surprising facts with which chymistry has made us acquainted. Air has been examined in the most accurate manner, which has been collected by means of a balloon, from a height of nearly 22,000 feet; and at the level of the sea; from the heart of the most crowded districts of the most populous towns; and from the summit of Mount Blanc; from within the polar circle; and from the equator; and no difference has been discovered from its proportions. The active properties of atmospherick air are all referable to the oxygen which it contains, and are those of that body diluted. Without oxygen no animal could live-in pure oxygen they would live if the expression may be allowed, too rapidly, as a candle would burn with too great intensity. All the vital functions would be increased to a morbid excess. Many experiments have been tried upon the subject, but no gas, or mixture of gases, has ever been discovered which can support life in the same uniform manner as the mixture which has been so admirably adapted to the purpose, and so wonderfully preserved from change. All the common processes of combustion are the result of the affinity of the oxygen of the atmosphere for the bodies which burn in it, and in all it is consumed; but notwithstanding the enormous consumption, from this and other causes, it is perFrom a Greek expression, signifying "privation of life." Five distinct compounds may, however, be produced by other means; and they admirably illustrate the change of properties conferred by composition in different, but multiple proportions. The first two belong to the class of oxides, not having any acid properties; and they may be called the protoxide and the deutoxide of nitrogen. The last three are The highest degree of oxygenation is marked by its name terminating in ick, as the nitrick acid; that of the next degree is made to terminate in ous, as the nitrous acid, and should there be an acid of a degree still lower, the Greek preposition hypo (under) is prefixed, to denote an under proportion of oxygen, as the hyponitrous acid. PROTOXIDE OF NITROGEN. The protoxide of nitrogen (or as it is sometimes called nitrous oxide) is best obtained by fusing a salt called nitrate of ammonia in a retort over an argand lamp. This salt is not always to be obtained, but is very easily formed by dissolving carbonate of ammonia (of which the common smelling salts are made) in nitrick acid (aquafortis) diluted with five or six drops of water. The solution is to be evaporated, till a drop of it, taken out upon a glass rod, concretes on cooling. When the salt is liquefied, it should be cautiously kept simmering by a gentle heat; the gas is given off, and may be collected over water; but as it is absorbed by this fluid in a considerable proportion, the tube through which it passes into the jar should be conducted to its top, that it may not have to pass the whole column. DEUTOXIDE OF NITROGEN. fluid, considerably heavier than common air, 100 its elements, is the only means of ascertaining it in cubick inches weighing 46.5 grains. It has a the instance before us. The method is objectionsweetish taste, and faint agreeable smell. Water able, but the proof not so satisfactory as when we dissolves about its own bulk of this gas. Animals, are able to confirm it by synthesis. When the two when wholly confined in it, die very speedily: it methods concur, the conclusion, which rests upon may, however, be breathed for a short time with im- them, has all the certainty of a mathematical depunity; and it has been found to produce a most monstration. extraordinary excitement in the human frame. The experiment may be tried, by filling a clean bladder with it, and inhaling it repeatedly through a pipe attached to a stop-cock. Care should be taken that the gas is very pure. The sensations which it produces have been variously described by different people, but all have agreed that they are very agreeable, and much resemble the exhilaration produced by spirituous liquors. It has mostly occasioned an irresistible propensity to laughter and soluble in water, and does not, when pure, act It is a permanent elastick fluid, very sparingly muscular exertion, not followed by that depression and sense of lassitude which generally succeed ex-able. The flame of most bodies, as of a taper or upon blue vegetable colours. It is wholly irrespircitement from fermented liquors. denominated, nitrick oxide) may be obtained from The deutoxide of nitrogen (or, as it is sometimes the action of nitrick acid (aquafortis) upon copper. The metal may be put into a retort, and the acid place, and the gas may be collected in a jar in the poured upon it, when a brisk effervescence will take water-bath. sulphur, is instantly extinguished, by being im mersed in it; but it parts with its oxygen to charcoal and phosphorus, if introduced in a state of vivid inflammation, and they burn in it with increased It does not explode, when mixed with energy. This gas does not change the colour of blue vegetable infusions, and, therefore, is not acid. Many substances, when introduced into it in a state of inflammation, burn with great splendour, from their superiour affinity for the oxygen, with which they combine, setting nitrogen free. The hydrogen, in proportion; but it colours its flame glowing wick of an extinguished taper is imme-green, if burnt with it in the common air. diately kindled by it into flame. Iron wire, and redhot charcoal, burn in it, with nearly the same splendour as in oxygen gas, but for a shorter time. Phosphorus introduced into it, in a state of active inflammation, burns with great violence, almost approaching to explosion. When mixed with hydrogen, it will detonate either by the application of flame, or of an electrick spark. Two volumes of the protoxide require two volumes of hydrogen for their complete decomposition, and the residue is two volumes of nitrogen. The experiment may be tried in the apparatus previously described for the detonation of mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen. Now, as two volumes of hydrogen are equivalent to the saturation of one volume of oxygen, we infer that the protoxide of nitrogen is composed of two volumes of nitrogen and one of oxygen, condensed into two volumes; and the specifick gravity of the gas confirms this influence, for the weight of 100 cubick inches of nitrogen is and of 50 oxygen Making the weight of 100 cubick inches of protoxide as before stated from experiment. 29.7 gas. 16.8 46.5 It is but little heavier than atmospherick air, 100 cubick inches weighing 31.7 grains. When mixed and if the experiment be made over water, a great with oxygen gas, deep red fumes are generated; absorption will ensue; and when the gases are per they entirely disappear. The same appearance fectly pure, and mixed in the proper proportions, takes place with atmospherick air, and the diminu tion It may be decomposed by suffering it to stand over iron filings, which abstract a portion of its oxygen, and convert it into protoxide of nitrogen. Its composition has been accurately ascertained by burning charcoal in it, which combines with the The equivalent number of nitrogen is also de- whole of its oxygen, amounting to half its volume, duced from the same data, for 16.8 29.7: 8:14, that is to say, the number for oxygen being denoted by 8, that of nitrogen must be 14; these two numbers being in the same proportion (allowing for the unavoidable inaccuracies of delicate experiments) as 16.8 to 29.7, the combining weights in the above experiment. and it leaves nitrogen to the amount of the other half. 50 cubick inches of oxygen weigh Making together Grains. 16.8 14.9 31.7 This is an example of the mode of reasoning, by which the composition of a body may be deduced from the results of analysis; which, as the protoxide the weight of 100 cubick inches of the deutoxide as of nitrogen cannot be formed by the direct union of before stated from experiment. Its composition, therefore, upon the scale of equivalent is, 1 equivalent of nitrogen 2 ditto of oxygen 14 16 30 NITRICK ACID We have already mentioned that by laboriously passing electrick sparks, from a powerful machine, through a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, some indications are obtained of an union between the two gases: the product is a small quantity of nitrick acid. This acid may readily be produced by passing the deutoxide of nitrogen very slowly into oxygen gas, The next combination, in order, of nitrogen with standing over water. By this operation, four volumes oxygen, the hyponitrous acid, is rather hypothe-of the former combine with three of the latter; and HYPONITROUS ACID. tical (conjectural), inasmuch as it never has been exhibited in a detached form. For its production, a mixture of deutoxide of nitrogen and oxygen must be made over mercury, instead of water, upon the surface of which a little solution of potash must float. The proportions must be 4 volumes of the former, and 1 of the latter. They combine together under these circumstances, and form an acid which immediately unites with the potash, but which cannot afterwards be separated from it without undergoing decomposition. It will not be necessary to say more upon this compound, and we only notice it as forming a link between the last and the next compound. We have seen that 4 volumes of the deutoxide are compound of 2 volumes of nitrogen, 2 volumes of oxygen, and the additional volumes make 3 volumes of oxygen to 2 of nitrogen in the composition of hyponitrous acid, or in numbers, 1 proportion of nitrogen 3 ditto of oxygen NITROUS ACID. 14 24 38 The next compound is the nitrous acid, which may also be produced by adding oxygen to the deutoxide of nitrogen. The experiment will not succeed over water or mercury, but may be conducted in a glass retort, fitted with a stop-cock, from which the air has been extracted by an exhausting syringe. In this way a mixture may be made of 2 measures of the deutoxide, and 1 measure of oxygen, which will be condensed into half their volume, and form a deep orange-coloured gas: 2 volumes of the deutoxide are composed, as we have seen, of 1 volume of nitrogen, and 1 volume of oxygen, and 1 volume of oxygen now added, form 2 volumes of oxygen to 1 of nitrogen in the composition of nitrous acid, or in numbers, 1 equivalent of nitrogen. 4 ditto of oxygen Equivalent of nitrous acid 46 A taper will burn in this gas, and phosphorus most vividly. Charcoal also burns in it with a dull red light. Making the equivalent of nitrick acid - 54 The acid as it is formed is absorbed by the water, and it is very doubtful whether it can be exhibited in an insulated state. The liquid nitrick acid is of very great importance in the arts, and is used in large quantities. It is procured, for commerce, by distilling nitre with strong sulphurick acid: the product is an intensely acid liquid, which, when pure, is colourless, and when most concentrated has a specifick gravity of 1.15; that is to say, it is by half heavier than water. In this state it contains 25 per cent. of water; which is the least quantity with which it is known to exist, and is therefore a definite compound of which are in the same proportion to each other as 75:25. And we have before shown, in speaking of the union of oxygen with hydrogen, that the equivalent of water is 9. In this state it is called hydro-nitrick acid (from a Greek word, signifying water) to denote this combination. In entering into other compounds, it abandons the water and combines in the dry, or, as it is termed, the anhydrous state. It may be mixed with water in any proportions be.. yond the 25 per cent. The nitrick acid is a highly corrosive fluid, and acts as a powerful cautery when applied to the skin, which it stains of a permanent yellow. It is decom posed, with great violence, by most substances which have an affinity for oxygen; which element enters so largely into its composition. If it be brought into contact with hydrogen, at a high temperature, a violent detonation will be the con sequence; but the experiment is dangerous, and should not be made without great caution. When poured upon warm, dry charcoal in powder, combustion ensues, with the emission of copious fumes of deutoxide of nitrogen. Spirits of turpentine may b inflamed by suddenly pouring nitrick acid upon it: the acid should be poured out of a phial attached to a long stick, or there would be danger to the eyes of the operator. Water dissolves it, and acquires a green tint, which changes to blue, and finally to yellow, as more of the gas is absorbed. The solution is sour, In reviewing these various compounds of oxygen reddens litmus paper, and stains animal substances and nitrogen, the mind cannot but be impressed with yellow. It has been called liquid nitrous acid; but the wonderful nature of that species of attraction with regard to this solution, there is some ambiguity which, by such apparently simple means, as mere to which we shall hereafter again refer. variations of proportion and approximation of particles of two bodies, can confer such essentially dif ferent properties upon nature! In the atmosphere No practically useful application has been made of any of these compounds. VOL. 111.-12 |