One of the most curious modifications produced by cultivation in the domesticated Sheep consists in the augmentation of the number of its horns; two, three, or even four supplementary appendages of this description being occasionally produced in addition to the normal number. Under these circumstances the additional horns usually occupy the upper and fore part of the head, and are of a more slender shape and take a more upright direction than the others, thus approaching in character to those of the Goat, while the true horns retain more or less of the spiral curve that distinguishes those of the Sheep. There exists a strong tendency to the hereditary propagation of this monstrosity, which is extremely frequent in the Asiatick races, but is also met with in a breed that is common in the North of Europe, and is said to have been originally derived from Iceland and the Feroe Islands. In the latter case it is unconnected with any other anomaly; but in the flocks of the nomad hordes of Tartary it is usually combined with an enlargement of the tail and adjacent parts, by the deposition of fat, frequently to an enormous Interiour Structure of the Solid Parts of the Earth-Of Beds, Strata, Caverns, and Veins. Excavations have uniformly shown, that the greater portion of the earth, consists of strata of materials of different natures, irregularly disposed. When these strata are of a similar nature, and of great thickness, they are called beds or banks. If they preserve a horizontal position, we call their subdivisions layers. The almost vertical position of the principal masses of most of the higher mountains, obliges us to give them the name of blocks. Sometimes the blocks are divided by vertical fissures, and then their positions may be called leaves or laminæ. The different masses which we have just indicated, are thrown one upon the other in every possible manner, both horizontally and at every angle. Fre-. quently in moderate elevations, and more particularly in lowlands, the different strata preserve, for hundreds of leagues, a parallel position. Even the most perfectly crystallized rocks appear sometimes to follow a horizontal direction. What confusion nevertheless, do we find by the side of this tranquil regularity of formation! What traces of destruction at once alarm and delight the observer of nature! In the plains, and on moderately high mountains, we meet with strata that have been entirely inverted, or partly shifted from their first position, bent in every shape, crooked and curved, and returning upon themselves. We find considerable strata in Mount Jura, which, having been overturned or pushed forward upon others, have stopped in a position so precarious, that the application of the least force would put them again in motion. In the pyramidal mountains, we discover that the layers are ranged round the axis of the pyramid like the leaves of the artichoke. But at every step we perceive a great diversity in the position of these strata, and in most mountains we discover the utmost disorder and confusion. These strata are almost all intersected by fissures and cavities more or less considerable. Some consist of interstices left between two ancient rocks at the moment of their crystallization; the great majority appear to owe their origin either to the retiring or sinking of the earth. The first of these causes has considerably increased them in the calcareous mountains of secondary formation; they are less frequent in gypsum. Some of these fissures have been filled with metallick substances, some by the filtering of water impregnated with stony matter, others by incrustations, by alluvial minerals, by vegetable, and animal earths; lastly, some have remained open, and form ravines, precipices, abysses, when they are open to the sky; or caverns, and grottoes, when they have walls and a natural roof. In a general view of the globe, we remark some very considerable caverns, but their dimensions have generally been much exaggerated. The depth of that of Eldon Hole, near Castleton in Derbyshire, has not been discovered, though sounded with a line of more than 9,600 feet. Near Frederickshal in Norway, there is a hole, into which, if stones be thrown, two minutes appear to elapse before they reach the bottom, from which it has been concluded that the depth was 11,000 feet. Among the nume rous caverns of Carniola, that of Adelsbury it is said affords a walk of about sixteen miles. It is said of the mammoth cavern of Kentucky, that by clearing a few obstructions, a coach may be driven therein for nearly fifteen miles. Numerous caverns are remarkable for natural curiosities. There are some from which, in summer time, an ice-cold wind issues with astonishing force. There are others, whose walls are in August covered with ice, which melts in December. The little communication which these caverns have with the external air, causes them to | vein is filled, frequently contains metallick ores, and change their temperature long after it becomes is then called Gangue, or that part to which the metal changed upon the surface of the earth. The most adheres. There is scarcely any mineral that is not interesting caverns, and the most curious for their found in some vein or other, more or less abundantnatural productions, are certainly those from whose ly. Some also contain petrifactions, which seems roofs water drops, impregnated with calcareous mat- to prove, that these fissures were originally empty, ter, and which, either soon hardening, remains sus- and had been filled from above, by means of a fluid pended from the vaults of the caverns, in the shape loaded with various substances, which it deposited of long crystals, or falling to the ground, assumes a in them. This is the opinion generally admitted. thousand fantastick forms; often representing various Some philosophers have regarded metallick veins as animals and vegetables. The naturalist prefers branches of a grand metallick trunk, concealed in those caverns which contain petrified bones. Those the interiour of the globe, and to which they have are the visible portions of vast burial places, where attributed a sort of vegetation, or organick matter. the revolutions of the globe have deposited whole The theory of veins, however, according to every generations of living beings. There are also some supposition, is very difficult to comprehend. caverns, whither certain species of marine animals withdraw, when they feel themselves about to expire. The thickness of the various strata, differs as much as their inclination or position, and as their fissures. Many of the middle class of mountains There are caverns which contain deep pits of water, contain beds of mineral or rock strata, of alum, and or wells, sometimes so extensive as to acquire the of coal, thirty or forty feet thick. But there are also name of subterraneous lakes. There are others from some strata of coal, not more than one inch in thickwhich rivers derive their source; while some are ness. White and black marbles are found in thicker known to receive very considerable streams, which strata than those which are variegated; and in genlose themselves in the interiour. It is to similar eral those substances which are least mixed or comreservoirs that we must attribute the periodical dis-pound, are found in the greatest masses. In Europe, appearance of the lake of Arknitz, in the Julian Alps. continued strata or beds, of the thickness of three There are some caverns in Norway, where, as you thousand feet, are extremely rare; but in Mexico walk upon an arched calcareous floor, you hear the and Peru, there are masses of porphyry, which are roar of invisible torrents under your feet. Many from 9,000 to 12,000 feet thick. caverns in Russia and in Siberia, have been evidently We call those beds or strata primary, which are formed by means of water, and even masses of ice. found at the greatest depths to which man has been Volcanick caverns form a distinct class. That of able to penetrate. These masses do not in general Surtur, in Iceland, which is 5034 feet long, has three contain any traces of animals or vegetables; and in of its sides, or walls, covered with a greenish black this point of view they may be called primitive, or varnish, formed by a volcanick vitrification. Long primordial. The next order, or that of secondary pieces of lava are suspended from the roof, which is strata, comprehends all those masses which form so chinky in many places as to admit the rays of the mountains, and are placed in regular strata or layers, sun. The most magnificent of all known caverns, is containing the remains of animals and of vegetables, doubtless that called "Fingal's Cave," in the Isle of and lying upon the primary strata. The third order Staffa, on the western coast of Scotland. Thousands consists of such beds as contain fragments of secondof majestick columns of basalt support a lofty roof, ary strata, mixed more or less frequently with the under which the sea rolls its waves, while the vast materials of the primitive class. They lie above the ness of the entrance allows the light of day to pen-secondary strata, and are heaped together in a more etrate the various recesses of the cave. confused manner. among themselves, is not yet determined by observation. Granite is almost universally considered as forming a sort of vault surrounding the globe, and supporting all those masses which seem to have been heaped upon it by the double action of a general crystallization, and a violent jumbling. We have never yet found granite lying upon porphyry, upon schist, or upon any other rock whatever; but the relative order of all the other rocks seems to vary much. The only principle that appears to be determined is, that the primitive or primordial rocks are never placed in great masses upon the others, while the others are constantly found accumulated upon them. The small fissures which pass through the masses The order which all the primitive rocks observe of rocks, and which we call by the general name of veins, although they present to the imagination a less striking appearance than that of caverns, yet to the eye of reason and of science, exhibit a still more complicated enigma. The essential character of a vein, is that of cutting or passing through a mass of rock, in a direction more or less different from that of the strata or layers, of which the rock or mountain is formed, and being filled with a mineral substance different from that of which the rock itself is composed. We sometimes find veins of twenty or thirty feet in thickness, while others are less than an inch. Some continue for the space of several leagues, others divide and disperse themselves in smaller veins. There are cases in which the veins, after having passed through many strata, suddenly break off at the commencement of a stratum of a particular sort, and reappear on the opposite side, exactly in the same direction, and of the same thickness that they had at first. The general line of veins is recti-linear, but without any preference as to direction. In the middle class of mountains, they follow the direction of the valleys. The matter with which the At the base of these mountains of the first order, we commonly find calcareous rocks of transition, that is, rocks which in part seem partly calcareous and partly mixed with animal remains. The secondary rocks, found commonly in regular strata, give a peculiar and characteristick appearance to the mountains which are composed of them. Their outlines are less broken than those of the primary mountains, their summits less lofty; but vegetation displays its richness upon their gently-inclined sides | granite mountains W. of Lake Champlain, and along of chalk and clay, covered very frequently with a the S. shores of the upper lakes. They are also layer of marl, and filled with the remains of animals found in many other parts of the world, some of and vegetables, different from those now existing in them completely rounded by the action of rain, and a living state. The argillaceous schist bears marks near six thousand feet above the level of the sea. of an entire vegetation anterior to the present con- In thus reviewing the structure of the globe, we stitution of the globe. In the marly-bituminous schist, are struck with the disorder and confusion that we meet with petrified fish, and many impressions everywhere mark its surface; it seems a vast ruin ; of aquatick animals; and the calcareous rocks con- and the confusion and overthrow of most of its strata, tain the bones of quadrupeds. These three strata, the irregular succession of those which seem to reand others which are analogous to them, frequently main in their original situations, the wonderful varisucceed each other in such a manner, that the re-ety which the direction of the veins and the forms mains of vegetables are placed below, and those of of the caverns display, the immense heaps of conquadrupeds nearest the surface. fused and broken substances, the transportation of Some rocks, as siliceous sand-stone, gypsum or enormous blocks to a great distance from the mounplaster of Paris, follow no regular order of succes-tains of which they appear to have formed a part-— sion. What chiefly characterizes stratified moun- every thing, in short, assures us that the history of tains, is rock or mineral salt, saline springs, mineral our globe reaches back to periods far anterior to waters, layers of coppery schist, alumine, calamine the existence of the human race, and makes us feel bituminous earths, with petroleum, or rock oil, and poor in the knowledge we have attained, even of naphtha; and lastly, coal. All these substances the present state of its surface. are accumulated in layers or beds, the succession of which constantly varies, but which all belong exclusively to stratified mountains. A third order, which we call tertiary, are also found in the midst of a confused mass of small por tions of substances, which seem to have been accumulated by some fluid, that has transported, or at least rolled and mixed them together. These form the bottoms of valleys, and are almost always placed upon the stratified rocks. Tafa, conglomerates, and breccias, are the principal strata of this kind. BOTANY. We have deemed it proper to introduce this department into our pages, because we esteem botany a science as useful and important as it is pleasing. We are aware that some are disposed to look upon this study as being effeminate in its nature and influence, and as of little or no value except to medical men. These people are certainly in errour. To cast about, and reflect for one moment upon the extent of our dealings with the vegetable world, is to The remains of large quadrupeds and other analogous animals now unknown in a living state, are found in these beds; there also are seen vast quantities of peat or turf, which are the remains of a re-feel convinced of the necessity and importance of a cent vegetation mixed with bituminous earth. Besides these distinct beds, or strata, the earth presents to us a great number of confused masses. All the banks of rivers and lakes, and the shores of the sea, are covered with pebbles, rounded by the waves which have rolled them against each other, and which frequently seem to have brought them from a distance. There are also similar masses of pebbles found at very great elevations, to which the present sea appears never to have been able to reach. The largest pebbles occupy the summits of some mountains, and their size diminishes as they approach the base. The distinct character of lavas are much better known, and their various forms easily accounted for. The strata which we observe in lava indicate the number of volcanick eruptions which have successively produced these strata. more intimate acquaintance with it than we generally possess. A knowledge of botany is essential to the farmer and the horticulturalist, because they cultivate plants; it is essential to the mechanick, because he derives many of his materials from the vegetable world; to the merchant, because he trafficks in plants in different shapes; to the apothecary and the physician, because they procure most of their drugs and medicines from the vegetable world; to the clergyman, because he may there behold the perfection of the works of the Great Designer carried out into its minutest details; to the lawyer, because it leads him to contemplate the most wonderful and the most perfect of laws. Botany is comparatively a modern science. The The fragments of granite and other pure rocks, thrown here and there upon stratified rocks, and first writers classified plants, according to their even upon alluvial lands, exhibit a phenomenon as general resemblances. Theophrastus has his waterindisputable as it is astonishing. All the chains of plants, and parasites, potherbs, and forest trees, and Mount Jura, all the mountains which skirt the Alps, corn-plants; Dioscorides, aromaticks and gum-bearthe hills and even the plains of Germany and Italy, have blocks of granite scattered over them, frequent- ing plants, eatable vegetables, and corn-herbs, and ly of large dimensions, and always of as pure a com- many who have imitated them have retained the position and as beautifully crystallized as the granite same method of arrangement. In 1570, a Flemof the highest Alps. They are scattered over the ing of the name of Lobel, improved upon the old low country along the Atlantick coast, to the S. and modes of distinction, by taking into account characS. E. of the primitive region occupying New England and the E. slope of the Allegany mountains, ters of a more definite nature, and thus laid the over the shell limestone along the Mohawk, S. of the foundation of the modern accurate mode of studving comparing our plant with all the genera under this order, we find it will agree with none but the strawberry. vegetation. Many others succeeded this author, who, while they disagreed upon the value to be ascribed to the small number of modifications of structure with which they were acquainted, adhered to On turning to the strawberry (under the botanical the ancient plan of making their classification, coin- name fragaria) we find there are several kinds of cide with natural affinities. Among them the most strawberry. Each kind is called a species, as the distinguished were Casalpinus, an Italian, who English strawberry, hautboy strawberry, pineapple published in 1583, John Ray, an Englishman, and strawberry, wild strawberry, &c., are of different" the celebrated Tournefort, who wrote near the end species. On carefully comparing our plant with the of the seventeenth century. At this time the materials descriptions of all the species, we find it will agree, of botany had so greatly increased, that the introduc- with none but the wild strawberry. Thus we arrive tion of more precision into arrangement became an at the generick name strawberry (fragania), and object of high importance; and this led to the con- specifick name, wild (virginiana). trivance of a plan that should be to botany what the alphabet is to language, a key by which what is really known of the science might be readily ascertained. With this in view, Riomus invented, in 1690, a system depending upon the conformation of the corolla of plants; Ramel, in 1693, upon the fruit alone; Magnol, in 1720, on the calyx and corolla; and finally, Linnæus, in 1731, on variations in the sexual organs. The clearness and simplicity which distinguished the plan of the last author, have given it a celebrity which it continues to maintain to this day. The Linnæan system, however, is the artificial system, and perhaps was only justified by the state of the science in which he found it in his day. But so great have been the improvements in opticks, and the modern discoveries so various and extensive, that we feel assured that our more intimate knowledge of the phenomena of vegetable life, will abundantly justify us in relinquishing the artificial plan of Lin-ady næus, and adopting the natural system. The artificial classification of plants is founded, upon the circumstances of the stamens. Each class is subdivided into two or more orders. These subdivisions are founded upon the number of stylesthe condition of the seeds-the length of body-the comparison between florets, &c. The names and descriptions of these classes and orders, with a defi-.. nition of botanical terms, we will give hereafter. The natural arrangement of plants is founded upon their agreement in habits, and mostly in medicinal, properties according to Linnæus. Jussieu, however, improved upon Linnæus, and found that plants were susceptible of a natural arrangement founded upon the circumstances of their seeds. We shall attend to that arrangement hereafter. 2 The object of the artificial system is merely to furnish a method for ascertaining the name of a plant. The object of the natural system is to bring together into small groups, plants which resemble v The art of searching out the name of a plant is denominated the analysis of a plant. In endeavouring to ascertain its specifick name, we trace it through several intermediate steps. Species are grouped together under generick names-genera under orders. -orders under classes. For example, we see the common wild strawberry for the first time; and are desirous to learn its name. By comparing the proper organs with the description of the classes, we find it belongs with the group of plants, which constitute apt t class, called Icosandria. This class is subdivided into orders, and we find our plant is to be referred The bamboo is a native of the hottest regions of to the order Polygynia. Here we find the names of Asia. It is likewise to be found in America, but not several gencra-such as the rose, the raspberry, the in that abundance with which it flourishes in the old strawberry, the fivefinger the avens, &c. On world. It is never brought into this country in suf THE BAMBOO. ficient supply for any useful purposes, being rather | At PHYSICAL EDUCATION. I. Of Exercise, or rather of the want of Exercise, in 'Boys enjoy exercise freely, and of the best kind, in the unrestrained indulgence of their youthful sports. By means of these, every muscle of the frame comes in for its share of active exercise, and free growth, vigour, and health are the result. It would be happy for girls, if some portion of such latitude were allowed to them also. But it is far otherwise. Even under the more favourable circumstances of country life, they are too much restricted from the free exercise which health requires. Their very dress unfits them from taking it, and the alleged indecorum of those active movements to which youth and spirits instinctively incite, is a bar to even the attempt being made. At their age, the measured, slowpaced, daily walk is quite insufficient even for the muscles specially engaged, while it leaves many others wholly unexercised. If this be true of the more hale and robust inhabitants of the country, how much more forcibly does it apply to the delicate and attenuated residents of towns, and especially to the inmates of female schools. Of these establishments the tems and habits require much revision, and until some effective reformation takes place, of which there is yet but little prospect, they will not fail to excite our sympathy and regret for the blanched aspects, shadowy forms, and sickly constitutions so continually presented, and which it is so painful to witness. Such beings are as little fitted for encountering the toils or fulfilling the duties of life, as are the plants of a hothouse for being transferred to the open borders. sys to 6, preparing to go out; dressing, or reading, or playing in school. 6 to 7, walking, generally arm-in-arm, on the high-road, many with their books in their hands, and reading. "Two days in the week they do not walk in the evening at all, being kept in for dancing; but, by way of amends, they go out on two other days, from 12 to 1, and then they miss writing. It is to be remarked that they never go out unless the weather is quite fine at the particular hours allotted for walking. They go to church all the year round, twice every Sunday, on which day no other exercise is taken. From 7 to 8, for the older girls reading or working in school, (this is optional,) and then prayers; for the younger, play in school, and prayers. At 8, the younger go to bed. From 8 to 9, the older, reading or working, as before. 9, to bed. "The twenty-four hours are, therefore, thus disposed of : In bed, (the older 9, the younger 10,) At meals Hours. 9 9 24 "The above account was taken from a second or third-rate school, and applies more particularly to the season most favourable for exercise,—summer. It is to be remarked that the confinement is generally greater in these than in schools of a higher order. That the practical results of such an astounding regimen are by no means overdrawn by Dr. Barrow, is sufficiently evinced by the following fact, a fact which we will venture to say may be verified by inspection of thousands of boardingschools in this country. We lately visited, in a large town, a boardingschool containing forty girls; and we learnt, on close and accurate inquiry, that there was not one of the girls who had been at the school two years (and the majority had been as long) that was not more or less crooked! Our patient was in this predicament; and we could perceive (what all may perceive who meet that most melancholy of all processions-a boardingschool of young ladies in their walk) that all her "The amount of exercise, or rather the extent to companions were pallid, sallow, and listless. We which the want of exercise is carried, in many board-can assert, on the same authority of personal obseringschools, will appear incredible to those who have vation, and on an extensive scale, that scarcely at not personally investigated the subject. The follow-single girl (more especially of the middle classes) ing is the carte of a young ladies' boardingschool, that has been at a boardingschool for two or three drawn up on the spot, a few years since, from the years, returns home with unimpaired health; and, for report of several of its inmates :* Younger only two hours and a half, - |