Russia owing to the lowering of the price of wool), Russia Leather silkworm culture. On the Molotchna the Menonites grow large quantities of mulberrytrees. It is a general rule among them that each should plant or own at least 1 acre of woodland, of which not less than one-half should be planted with mulberry-trees. Besides the Menonite silkworm plantations, there are silkworms in the governments of Kieff, Kharkow, Moscow, and Warsaw. The total raw silk production of Russia has been roughly estimated at about 1,900,000 lb., of a value of about £600,000. In 1870 there were 10,000 hands employed in the silk manufactories, of which the produce was more than £1,160,000 in value. The prices of raw silks vary considerably at Moscow. As to the manufactured goods, Russian silk atlas is sold at 5s. 10d. per yard; half-silk atlas, from 35. 5d. to 4s. 5d. per yard. It is in the fabrication of the cheaper and thinner silks that the Moscow manufacturers excel. Kanaus," an essentially Russian and Caucasian pure silk manufacture, generally striped in pattern, is sold at from 35. 5d. to 4s. 5d.; an excellent article for the price. Russian atlas is certainly inferior to foreign; but on the whole Russian silks are stronger and better than the German and Austrian. Some, indeed, are very little inferior to those of Lyons. In 1870, Russia imported 714,597 lb. avoir. of spun silk, and 297,216 lb. of silk stuffs. Her export of raw silk was about 144,000 lb. The Russians as factory hands, being quick to learn, and naturally fine fingered, show considerable aptitude for factory labour, and they are especially good mechanics; but they have little pride in their work, and are careless, often causing great losses in the mills. Asa market for foreign textile fabrics, Russia will probably, and for a long period, continue to be a consumer of the finer descriptions of manufactures from abroad, but it is scarcely likely that the lowest priced classes of foreign textile goods will ever to any large extent be imported. Money. The silver rouble, average rate of exchange, 3s. 2d. Weights and measures. The berkowetz (or shippund)=361 lb. avoir.; pud=361 lb.; chetverk=5'77 imp. bush.; oxhuft=48'72 imp. gall.; auker=8'12 imp. gall. ; vedro=2'70 imp. gall. ; arsheen= 28 inches; dessiatine=2 691 English acres; ship last 2 tons; verste=1663 yards. RUSSIA LEATHER [Ger. Juften, Du. Jucht, Jugt, Da. Ruslæder, Ryslæder, Fuchter, Sw. Jufter, Fuchter, Ryska budar, Fr. Cuir de Russie, ou de Roussi, Vache de Russie, It. Cuojo di Russia, Vacchalte di Muscovia, Sp. and Port. Muscovia, Rus. Juft, Youft, Pol. Fuchta] is prepared from the hides of kine, and comes to us ready dressed from Russia. This is the leather which the Russians call Youft (in the plural Youfti), a word denoting that the Russian skins are usually assorted in couples. There are very few towns in Russia in which this species of leather is not prepared, but that which is manufactured at Jaroslaw is accounted the best. In foreign countries, as well in Europe as in Asia, the red leather is K Rye most esteemed, being admirably calculated for book-binding. In Russia, however, the black leather is in the greatest demand, for this obvious reason, that vast quantities of it are employed in the formation of boots and shoes. KYE [Ger. Rogken, Rocken, Du. Rog, Rogge, Da. Rug, Sw. Räg, Fr. Seigle, It. Segale, Segala, Sp. Centeno, Port. Senteio, Centeio, Rus. Rosch, Sel, Far, Pol. Rez, Zito, Lat. Secale]. The plant which produces this well-known and useful species of grain is a native of the island of Candia, and was introduced into England and the north of Europe many years ago. There are two varieties, the winter and springrye. The winter-rye, which is larger than the spring-rye, is sown in autumn, at the same time with wheat. The spring-rye, which is sown along with the oats, usually ripens as soon as the winter-rye; but the grain produced being lighter is seldom sown, except where the autumnal crop has failed. Rye is commonly used in making bread, either alone or mixed with wheat. S SABLE [Ger. Zobel, Du. Sabel, Da. Zobel, Sw. Sabel, Fr. Zibelline, Marte-Zibelline, It. Zibellino, Sp. Cebellina, Marta-Cebellina, Port. Zebelina, Zibelina, Rus. and Pol. Sobol, Lat. Zibellina, Zobela], an animal chiefly esteemed on account of its fur, which bears the same name. The most beautiful sable-skins have generally the worst tails; and, vice versa, the worst skins have the best tails. There are sables as white as snow, but they are met with very rarely. Upon the islands in the Northeastern Sea, beyond Kamtschatka in Russia, the sables are very indifferent; but then they have the tails a quarter of a Russian ell long, streaked red and black. Hudson's Bay and Canada are the parts of North America which furnish us with sables, but those of the former are far superior to the latter. The colour of the North American skins is generally dark flaxen. SAFFLOWER, or BASTARD SAFFRON [Ger. Safflor, Du. Saffloer, Floers, Basterd, Saffran, Da. Safflor, Vegte Saffran, Sw. Safflor, Oägt Saffran, Fr. Cartame, Saffran batard, Saffran d'Allemagne, Safranon, It. Zaffrone, Zafferano saracinesco, Sicil. Usfaru, Sp. Alazor, Azafran bastardo, Caramo, Port. Açafroa, Azafroa, Cartamo, Fusaro, Rus. Polerroi, Prostoi schafran, Pol. Szafran polny, Krokos, Lat. Carthamus tinctorius, Saffranum], is the florets of the flower of the carthamus tinctorius, a plant originally growing in Egypt and some of the warm parts of Europe, especially Spain, and also in the Levant, whence large quantities are annually imported into Great Britain. The good quality of this commodity is known by a bright colour of a saffron huc. Safflower contains two kinds of Salt colouring matter; the one yellow, the other red. The first alone is soluble in water: its solution is always turbid: with re-agents it exhibits the appearances commonly observed in yellow colouring matter. Acids render it lighter: alkalis make it deeper, and more approaching to orange. Both produce a small portion of fawn-coloured precipitate, by means of which it becomes clearer. SAFFRON [Ger. Zaffran, Du. Saffraan, Da. and Sw. Saffran, Fr. Safran, It. Zafferano, Sp. Azafran, Port. Açafrao, Rus. Schafran, Pol. Szafran, Lat. Crocus], a bulbous plant, of which there are two species, one blowing in spring and the other in autumn. The former is merely esteemed on account of the beauty of its flowers. The latter is in blossom earlier than the green leaves appear, which remain during winter, and the flowers contain those small threads or filaments used for sundry purposes. There are three varieties of this species of saffron to be met with in the shops, two of which are brought from abroad; the other is the produce of our own country. This last is greatly superior to the former, from which it may be distinguished by its blades being rather broader. When in perfection it is of a fiery orange-red colour, and yields a deep yellowish tincture. It should be chosen fresh, not above a year old, in close cakes, neither dry nor yet very moist, tough and firm in tearing, of the same colour within as without, and of a strong, acrid, diffusive smell. SAGO [Ger, Sago, Du. Sagoe, Da. Sago, Sagogryn, Sw. Sagogryn, Fr. Sagou, It. Sp. and Port. Sago]. This is the produce of an oriental tree, the cycas circinalis, which has generally been considered as belonging to the palms, though some have classed it as a fern. According to Petit-Thouars, however, it forms a class distinct from both. The pith of a tree of a middle age or growth is beaten with water, and made into cakes, which are used by the Indians as bread. They likewise put the pow. der into a funnel, and wash it with water over a hair-sieve, which allows only the finer part to pass through the water. The water, on standing, deposits the fecula, which, being passed through perforated copper-plates, is formed into the grains called sago. The sago-tree grows spontaneously, and in great abundance, in several parts of India, but particularly in the Moluccas and on the coast of Malabar. SALT [Fr.Sel, Ger. Salz], well known as a seasoner and preserver of food. Two kinds are distinguished, Rock and Sea Salt. When found native in immense masses, which only requires to be dug and reduced to powder, it is termed rock salt, and when obtained by the evaporation of sea water, common or sea salt; sp. gr. 2125. Salt abounds in various parts of the world. In England, the beds of rock and brine springs situated in Cheshire and Wor. cestershire are the most important sources of supply, not only for home consumption, but for exportation to Russia, Prussia, Belgium, the United States, and other countries. Salvage SALVAGE. Salvage is an allowance made for saving a ship, or goods, or both, from the dangers of the seas, fire, pirates, or enemies. SAMPLE, a small quantity of an article exhibited at a public or private sale as a specimen of the commodity. Sugars, wool, spirits, wine, coffee, and nearly every species of merchandise, is sold by sample. If an article is not, on an average, equal at least to the sample whereby it is sold, the buyer may recall his contract, and return the article upon the hands of the seller. SANDWICH OF HAWAII ISLANDS, a group in the North Pacific, between Lat. 11° 54' and 22° 15′ N., and Long. 199° 36′ and 205° 6' E. Pop. about 80,000. The productions are, wheat, raised mostly on the uplands, and coffee, sugar, cetton, tobacco, cacao, arrowroot, mulberries, guano, &c. The chief port is Honolulu. It affords safe anchorage, and great facilities for vessels to discharge carg. The commerce of this group is large, and steadily increasing; its annual value being about £16,000. Imports. Manufactured goods, sheathing copper, ships' stores, provisions and colonial produce. Exports. Sugar, salt, molasses, arrowroot, &c. SAPAN [Ger. Sapanholz, Japanholz, Du. Sapanhout, Da, Sapanholt, Sw. Sappan, Fr. Bois de Sapan, It. Legno di Sapan, Sp., and Port. Sapan, Lat. Lignum Sappan], a species of wood, similar in every respect to the Brazilwood, and employed for the same purposes. The tree which produces it is found in South America, Japan, and Cochin-China. The Sapan and the cypress-tree are more commonly met with in Japan than any others, and are employed not only in the construction of edifices and ships, but in the formation of cabinets, chests, boxes, &c. The branches are used as fuel. SAPPHIRE [Ger. Sapphir. Du. Sffiersteen, Da. Sw. and Fr. Saphir, It. Zaffiro, Sp. Safiro, Safir, Port. Safira, Rus. Fachant, Pol. Szafir, Lat. Sapphirus], a genus of precious stone, of a blue colour, and the hardest of all except the ruby and diamond. They are found in the same countries with the ruby; also in Bohemia, Alsace, Siberia, and Auvergne. Some are found half green and red, and are foliated like the ruby. The fine hard sapphires, called by the jewellers oriental, are of the same nature with the ruby and topaz, excepting the mere circumstance of colour. SARDINES, or SARDINIAS [Ger. Sadellen, Du. Sardynen, Da. and Sw. Sardeller, Fr. Sardines, It. Sardine, Sp. Sardinas, Port. Sardinbas, Rus. Sardeln, Pol. Sardely, Lat. Sardine], are taken in considerable quantities on our coasts, and are exceedingly plentiful on the coasts of Algarva in Portugal, Cadiz and Grenada in Spain, and along all the shores of Italy. The small sardines, caught on the Coast of Provence in France, are esteemed by epicures as being superior to all others of this species. Sena SATIN [Ger. Atlass, Du. Atlas, Da. Atlas, Atlask, Sw. Atlask, Fr. Satin, It. Raso, Sp. Rese liso, Port. Setim, Rus. Atlass, Pol. Atlas],a soft, closely woven silk, with a glossy surface, usually employed for women's wear. In the manufacture of other silken stuffs, such, for example, as taffety, the mode is to raise alternately each half of the warp, in order to form the body of the stuff. On the contrary, in weaving satin, the workmen only raise the fifth or the eighth part of the warp; by these means the woof is hidden beneath the warp, which, presenting an even, close, and smooth surface, is the more capable of reflecting the rays of light; and thus it is that satin acquires that lustre and brilliancy which distinguish it from most other kinds of silks. SAY, or SAYE, a kind of serge or woollen stuff, much used abroad for linings, and by the religious of some orders for shirts; with us it is employed as aprons, by several descriptions of artificers, being usually dyed green. SEAL [Ger. Seehund, Robbe, Du. Zeehond, Da. Sælhund, Sæl, Sw. Sjæl, Fr. Phoque, Veau marin, It. Foca, Vitello marino, Sp. Foca, Bercero marino, Port. Phoca, Vitello ou bezerro marinho, Rus. Teulen, Nerpa, Pol. Ciele morskie, Lat. Phoca, Vitulus marinus], an animal of the amphibious kind, a native of the European seas, and found about all the coast of the northern hemisphère, and even extending to the southern polar regions. It also inhabits some fresh-water lakes, as those of Baikal, Oron, &c. Seals are generally very fat, and are hunted in the northern regions for the sake of their eil, which forms a considerable article of commerce. bottle-nosed seal is usually so excessively fat as to resemble a skin of oil, the tremulous motion of the blubber being plainly perceivable beneath the skin. A single animal of this species has been known to yield a butt of oil. The skin of the seal yields a very fine species of fur. The SEALING-WAX [Ger. Siegellack, Du. Brieflak, Zegellak, Da. Sejgllak, Sw. Sigillvax, Fr. Cire d'Espagne, Cire à cacheter, It. Cera Lacca, Cera di Spagna, Sp. and Port. Lacre, Rus. Surgutsch, Pol. Lak] is the wax used for sealing letters, legal instruments, &c. It is a composition of gum-lac, melted and incorporated with resin, and afterwards coloured with some pigment, as vermilion, verditer, ivory-black, &c. SENA, or SENNA [Ger. Senesblätter, Du. Senne, Da. Semsblade, Sw. Sennesblader, Fr. Séné, It. Sena, Sp. Sen, Sena, Port. Sene, Senna, Rus. Senetnüe listü, Pol. Senes, Lat. Senna, Sennae folia], the leaf of the cassia senna Lin. This is a shrubby plant cultivated in Persia, Syria, and Arabia, whence the leaves are brought, dried, and picked from the stalks, to Alexandria in Egypt, and thence imported into Europe. They are of an oblong figure, sharp-pointed at the ends, about a quarter of Serge an inch broad, and not a full inch in length, of a lively yellowish-green colour, a faint, not very disagreeable smell, and a nauseous taste. Some inferior sorts are brought from Tripoli and other places. These may easily be distinguished by their being either narrower, longer, and sharper pointed, or larger, broader, and round-pointed, with small prominent veins, or large and obtuse, of a fresh, green colour, without any yellow cast. The Arabians sell their senna at Mecca and Jidda, whence it passes by way of Suez and Kahira to Alexan dria. Silk each of these being provided with yards, sails, &c. SHIRTING is a description of unbleached calico, made in Lancashire, from American and Indian cotton, unless in the very fine qualities, when Egyptian takes the place of the latter. The piece is 36 yards long, and is from 36 to 45 inches broad, according to the weight of material required. In the process of manu. facture the yarn made from the American staple, which is the strongest, forms the warp or foundation of the web-the threads passing from end to end of the piece-and the Indian SERGE [Ger. Sarsche, Du.Sargie, Da. Sars, the weft or the threads running across. Before Sarge, Sirts, Sw. Sars, Fr. Sarge, Serge, It. the warp is placed on the loom, it is carefully Sargia, Sp. Sarga, Port. Sarja, Rus. Sears-sized and then dried, so that the yarn may be ha, Pol. Szareza], a woollen stuff manufac-separated and stiffened sufficiently to enable tured in a loom, of which there are various the weavers to pass it through the reed, and kinds, denominated either from their different afterwards what is called the treddles. The qualities or from the places where they are former preserves the width of the piece, and wrought. In the manufacture of serges, the the latter causes the warp to rise and fall while largest wool is chosen for the warp, and the the weft is passing through. The weft is conshortest for the woof. tained in a long narrow box called a shuttle, and is kept from becoming too thick or too thin by means of a wooden box, which sways to and fro in front of the operative, when the loom is in motion. When woven, a good piece should be free from specks, and be of a uniform colour. The selvages or borders should be entirely free from small pricks, and at each end there should be threads of red run across to indicate that the piece is whole. It ought also to be quite free from damp and unpleasant smells, for if packed otherwise, mildew soon appears, and damages the material. It is in this description of calico that the chief business is done in Lancashire, as all over the East it is extensively used. The particular weight in demand is 7 lb. shirting, which sells abroad for about 35 per cent. above its cost, and taking the charges of freight, shipment, &c. at 25 per cent., that would leave a reasonable margin of profit. SHAMMY, or CHAMOIS LEATHER [Ger. Sámischleder, Du. Zeem, Zeemleêr, Da. Semslæder, Św. Sämskläder, Fr. Chamois, It. Camoscio, Sp. Gamioza, Port. Camurça, Rus. Samschnüi, Koshi, Pol. Zamerz, Lesz], a kind of leather, dressed either in oil or tanned, and much esteemed for its softness, pliancy, and being capable of bearing soap without hurt. The real shammy is prepared of the skin of the chamois-goat. The true chamois leather is counterfeited with common goat, kid, and even sheep-skin, the practice of which makes a particular profession called by the French chamoisure. SHAWLS [Fr. Chals, Chales, Ger. Schalen], well-known articles of dress made of wool, silk, or more commonly of silk and wool mixed. The finest are those made of cashmere. The chief seats of the shawl manufacture in the United Kingdom are Paisley and Norwich. French shawls are highly esteemed. SILK [Fr. Soie, Ger. Seide], a very soft, fine, bright thread, the work of an insect called the SHEEP [Fr. Brebis, Mouton, Ger. Schafe], a bombyx, or the silk-worm. Silk occurs in well-known ruminating animal. British sheep various forms. Cocoons, knibs, or husks are are usually classed into short-woolled and long- the balls as formed by the worm. Raw silk, woolled, the leading and best bred of the for- the state when simply wound off the cocoons mer being the South Down, and of the latter into skeins or banks, is the thread composed of the New Leicester. The fleece of the former several fibres united by their natural gum. is short and fine, and weighs 3 to 4 lb., and Waste silk is that part which is first wound off that of the latter averages from 6 to 7 lb. Of cocoons in the operation of reeling, and such other breeds, the chief short wools are the cocoons as, being eaten through by the worm, black-faced Scots, the Cheviots, the Dorset, cannot be wound off the reel, but are afterthe Hereford, the Wiltshire; and the chief wards carded and spun. Silk husbandry is long-wools, the Teeswater, the Lincoln, and extensively prosecuted in Italy, France, China, the Romney Marsh. Persia, Siam, and India. Silk is imported into this country chiefly from Italy and China. It is, next to tea, the great staple of China. For many years there was a prohibition on the importation of foreign silks into this country; in 1824 this prohibition ceased, and the silk manufacture made rapid progress. In 1845 the duties upon raw and thrown silk were totally abolished, and the 30 per cent. ad valorem duty on foreign silks was reduced to 15 per cent. SHERRY, a well-known wine, of a deep or light amber colour. When good it has a fine aromatic odour; its taste is warm, and with some degree of the agreeable bitterness of the peach kernel. It is principally produced in the vicinity of Xeres, in Spain. SHIP, a general name for all large vessels, particularly those equipped with three masts and a bowsprit; the masts being composed of a lower-mast, topmast, and topgallantmast, QUANTITIES OF SILK EXPORTED FROM THE PORTS OF SHANGHAE AND CANTON TO Foreign Countries and CoAST PORTS IN the Year ended 31st Dec., 1868. Ports from which Exported. COUNTRIES TO WHICH EXPORTED. Corid, cloth measure = 18 imp. inches; the gantang of 2 bamboos, by which liquids, grain, and fruit are often sold, = 1 Eng. gallons, and 104 imp. gallon. The common weight is the Chinese picul of 100 catties, or 1,600 teels = 1333 lb. avoir. SILVER [Ger. Silber, Du. Zilver, Da. Solv, | Sw. Silfver, Fr. Argent, It. Argenta, Sp. Plata, Port. Prata, Rus. Serebro, Pol. Srebro, Lat. Argentum], is a metal of a fine white colour, without either taste or smell; and in point of brilliancy perhaps inferior to none of the metallic bodies, if we except polished steel. SNUFF [Ger. Schnupftabac, Du. SnuiftakIts hardness is 7. When melted, its specific bak, Da. and Sw. Snus, Snustobak, Fr. Tabac gravity is 10478; when hammered, 10'609. en poudre, It. Tabacco danaso, Sp. Tabaco de In malleability, it is inferior to none of the polvo, Port. Tabaco em po, Rus. Nosowoi metals, if we except gold, and perhaps also tabak, Pol. Proszek), a powder chiefly made of platinum. It may be beaten out into leaves tobacco, the use of which is so universally only 1-160,000th of an inch thick. Its duc-known as to need no description here. Large tility is equally remarkable: it may be quantities of snuff are made both in Scotland drawn out into wire much finer than a human and Ireland, a great part of which is brought hair; so fine, indeed, that a single grain of into this country for sale. The Irish snuff is silver may be extended about 400 feet in prepared by toasting the tobacco previously to length. Its tenacity is such that a wire of the grinding, and not only the leaves but the silver o'078 inch in diameter is capable of sup- stalks of the plant are ground up in the course porting a weight of 187'13 lb. avoir. without of the process. Hence it is that the Irish snuff breaking. has obtained the appellation of stalk. SINGAPORE. This town consists of an island off the S. extremity of the Malay peninsula, separated from the mainland by a strait, which in one part is only a quarter of a mile. It was acquired by purchase in 1819, and in 1826 was formed into one government with Penang and Malacca. Singapore is valuable principally as a depot for the British and Indian trade with the islands of the Eastern seas. Exports. Teak, tin, pepper, gutta percha, sago, rice, coffee, sugar, &c.,and imports, cotton, woollens, arms, iron, copper, linens, &c. The trade has advanced from £2,610,440 in 1825-6 to £12,378,319 in 1868. The extremely rapid progress, especially during the first 40 years of its existence, that is to say up to 1859, is a noteworthy feature; since then it has hardly maintained the same steady advance, though in 1865-6 it reached the large amount of 141⁄2 millions. There are no duties on imports or exports. The only charge on shipping is a light due of about 3 cents per ton. Money. Accounts are stated in dollars, divided into 100 cents; also in rupees (2s. per rupee); annas (1), and pies (td.). Measures and weights. | SPAIN [Anc. Iberia, Sp. Espana] forms with Portugal the Pyrenean or Iberian peninsula. It lies between Lat. 36° and 43° 46′ N., and Long. 3° 20′ E., and 9° 10' W. It is bounded N. by Bay of Biscay and France; W. by Portugal and the Atlantic; and S. and E. by the Straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean. Area, 182,758 sq. miles. Pop. 16,301,851. Cap. Madrid. Principal towns and pop. Barcelona, 252,015; Seville, 152,000; Valentia, 145,512; Malaga, 113,150; Murcia, 109,446; Granada, 100,678; Saragossa, 82,189; Cadiz, 71,914; Valladolid, 50,017. Colonial Posses sions. Balearic Islands, Canary Islands, Cuba, Porto Rico, Phillipine Islands, the Presidios (Ceuta, Pennon de Velezotlhucemas, and Melilla on the North Coast of Morocco). Mineral productions of the Provinces. The extension of railway communication in the interior is necessary for the further development of the mining produce, which ought to form a most important source of wealth. The produce amounts to about 1,341,000 tons, and is divided among the different provinces as follows:Iron, Almeria, Guipuzcoa, Leon, Logrono, Ma |