I. FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES AFTER ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως, μή.

§ 215. The clauses which depend on the so-called final particles iva, ús, oπws, that, in order that, and μý, that not, lest, may be divided into three classes :—

as

A. Final clauses, expressing the purpose or motive; ἔρχεται ἵνα τοῦτο ἴδη, he is coming that he may see this. Here all the final particles may be used.

B. Object clauses with onos, after verbs signifying to strive for, to care for, to effect; as σkóñEL ÖTTWS TOÛTO YEVÝσETAL, see to it that this is (shall be) done.

C. Object clauses with μý after verbs of fear or caution; as poßeîtai μǹ Toûto Yévyrai, he fears that (or lest) this may happen.

REMARK. The first two classes are to be distinguished with special care. The object clauses in B are the direct object of the leading verb, and can even stand in apposition to an object accusative like τοῦτο; as σκόπει τοῦτο, ὅπως μή σε ὄψεται, see to this, namely, that he does not see you. But a final clause could stand in apposition only to τούτου ἕνεκα, for the sake of this, or διὰ τοῦτο, to this end ; as ἔρχεται τούτου ἕνεκα, ἵνα ἡμᾶς ἴδῃ, he is coming for this purpose, namely, that he may see us.

NOTE. The negative adverb in all these clauses is un; except that οὐ is used after μή, lest, to avoid μὴ μή (§ 218).

A. Final Clause.

§ 216. 1. Final clauses take the subjunctive after primary tenses, and the optative after secondary tenses.

E.g.

Διανοεῖται τὴν γέφυραν λῦσαι, ὡς μὴ διαβῆτε, he thinks of breaking up the bridge, that you may not pass over. Παρακαλεῖς ἰατρούς, ὅπως μn áo áνn, you call in physicians, that he may not die. Pilos ἐβούλετο εἶναι τοῖς μέγιστα δυναμένοις, ἵνα ἀδικῶν μὴ διδοίη δίκην, he wished to be a friend to the most powerful, that he might do wrong and not be punished. Τούτου ἕνεκα φίλων ᾤετο δεῖσθαι, ὡς συνέργους exo, he thought he needed friends for this purpose, namely, that he might have helpers.

NOTE 1. The future indicative in final clauses is very rare.

NOTE 2. The adverb av (ké) is sometimes joined with ws and ὅπως before the subjunctive in final clauses ; as ὡς ἂν μάθῃς, ἀντάKOVσOV, hear the other side, that you may learn. It adds nothing to the sense that can be made perceptible in English.

2. As final clauses express the purpose or motive of some person, they admit the double construction of indirect discourse (§ 242, 1 b). Hence, instead of the optative after secondary tenses, we can have the subjunctive, which would be used when a person conceived the purpose in his own mind; that is, we can say either ev iva 18o, he came that he might see (§ 216, 1), or ev iva i8n, because the person himself would say ἔρχομαι ἵνα ἴδω, I come that I may see, E.g.

Τὰ πλοῖα κατέκαυσεν, ἵνα μὴ Κῦρος διαβῇ, he burned the vessels, that Cyrus might not pass over. See § 248, Note.

3. The secondary tenses of the indicative are used in final clauses to denote that the end or object is dependent on some unfulfilled condition or some unaccomplished wish, and therefore is not or was not attained. E.g.

Τί μ' οὐ λαβὼν ἔκτεινας εὐθὺς, ὡς ἔδειξα μήποτε; &c., why did you not take me and kill me at once, that I might never have shown? &ς. Φεύ, φεῦ, τὸ μὴ τὰ πράγματ ̓ ἀνθρώποις ἔχειν φωνὴν, ἵν ̓ ἦσαν μηδὲν οἱ δεινοὶ λόγοι, Alas! alas! that the facts have no voice for men, so that words of eloquence might be as nothing.

B. Object Clauses with onws after Verbs of Striving, &c,

§ 217. Object clauses depending on verbs signifying to strive for, to care for, to effect, regularly take the future indicative after both primary and secondary

tenses.

The future optative may be used after secondary tenses, as the correlative of the future indicative; but commonly the indicative is retained, as explained in § 216, 2. E.g.

Φρόντιζε ὅπως μηδὲν ἀνάξιον τῆς τιμῆς ταύτης πράξεις, take heel that you do nothing unworthy of this honour. Ἐμηχανώμεθα ὅπως μηδεὶς τοῦτο γνώσοιτο, we were planning that nobody should know

S.G.

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this (here γνώσεται would be more common). Επρασσον ὅπως τις Bondeia e, they were trying to effect (this), that some assistance should come.

NOTE 1. Sometimes the present or aorist subjunctive or optative is used after these verbs, as in final clauses.

NOTE 2. Both oπws and oπws un are often used with the future indicative in exhortations or prohibitions, some imperative like σKÓTTEL οι σκοπεῖτε, take care, being understood; as ὅπως οὖν ἔσεσθε ἄξιοι ris eλevoepías, (see that you) prove yourselves worthy of freedom.

C. Object Clauses with μn after Verbs of Fearing, &c. § 218. After verbs denoting fear, caution, or danger, pý, that or lest, takes the subjunctive after primary tenses, and the optative after secondary tenses. The subjunctive may also follow secondary tenses, to retain the mood in which the fear would

originally occur to the mind. E.g.

Φοβοῦμαι μὴ τοῦτο γένηται (vereor ne accidat), I fear that this may happen ; φοβοῦμαι μὴ οὐ τοῦτο γένηται (vereor ut accidat), I fear that this may not happen (§ 215, N.). povτíčw μǹ крátισTOV ? μoi oiyâv, I am anxious lest it may be best for me to be silent. Οὐκέτι επετίθεντο, δεδιότες μὴ ἀποτμηθείησαν, they no longer made attacks, fearing lest they should be cut off. 'Epoßovvто μÝ Tɩ Táon, they feared lest he should suffer anything (§ 216, 2).

NOTE. Verbs of fearing may refer to objects of fear which are present or past. Here un takes the present and past tenses of the indicative, E.g.

Δέδοικα μὴ πληγῶν δέει, I fear that you need blows. Φοβούμεθα μὴ ἀμφοτέρων ἅμα ἡμαρτήκαμεν, we fear that we have missedl both at once. "Opa μn Taiwλeyev, beware lest he was speaking in jest,

II. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

$ 219. 1. In conditional sentences the clause containing the condition is called the protasis, and that containing the conclusion is called the apodosis. The protasis is introduced by ei, if.

2. The adverb av (Epic xê) is regularly joined to e in the protasis when the verb is in the subjunctive; ei with av forming éáv, av (a), or v. (See § 207, 2.) The simple ei is used with the indicative and optative.

The same adverb av is used in the apodosis with the optative, and with the secondary tenses of the indicative in the construction of § 222.

3. The negative adverb of the protasis is regularly μn, that of the apodosis is où.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

§ 220. Conditional sentences in Greek have six forms,— four of ordinary conditions, and two of present and past general suppositions.

I. Conditions are naturally divided into (a) present or past, and (b) future.

(a) 1. We may simply state a present or past condition, imply

ing nothing as to its fulfilment; as if he is (now) doing this, ei Tovто páσ σe;-if he was doing it, ei empaoσe;—if he did it, ei ëπpage ;—if he has (already) done it, ei répaɣe. (§ 221.)

(a) 2. We may state a present or past condition so as to imply that it is not or was not fulfilled; as if he were (now) doing this, ei Tovто πраσσe;-if he had done this, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξε (both implying the opposite). (§ 222.)

(6) 1. In stating a future condition, we may say if he shall do this, ἐὰν πράσσῃ (or πράξη) τοῦτο (or, still more

vividly, ei π páέeɩ TOûTO), making a distinct supposition of a future case. (§ 223.)

(b) 2. We may also say if he should do this, el páσσoι (or

πράξεις) τοῦτο, still supposing a case in the future, but less distinctly and vividly than before. (§ 224.)

II. Two forms of general conditions, one present, the other past, are distinguished from the ordinary present and past conditions of (a) 1. Here we suppose an event to occur or to have occurred on any one of a series of possible occasions; as

τις

(a) If (ever) any one steals, he is (always) punished, éáv Tis κλέπτῃ, κολάζεται.

(b) If (ever) any one stole, he was (always) punished, ei tɩs κλέπτοι, ἐκολάζετο. (See § 225.)

I. FOUR FORMS OF ORDINARY CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

(a) Present and Past Conditions

1. Simple Suppositions."

§ 221. When the protasis simply states a present or past supposition, implying nothing as to the fulfilment

of the condition, it takes the indicative with ei Any form of the verb may stand in the apodosis. E.g.

Εἰ τοῦτο πράσσει, καλῶς ἔχει, if he is doing this, it is well. Εἰ θεοί τι δρῶ σιν αἰσχρὸν, οὐκ εἰσὶν θεοί, if Gods do anything disgraceful, they are not Gods. Εἰ θεοῦ ἦν, οὐκ ἦν αἰσχροκερδής, if he was the son of a God, he was not avaricious.

NOTE. Even the future indicative can be used here to express a present intention or necessity that something shall be done; as aipe πλήκτρον, εἰ μαχεῖ, raise your spur, if you are going to fight. (Here εἰ μέλλεις μάχεσθαι would be more common.)

2. Suppositions contrary to Fact.

§ 222. When the protasis states a present or past supposition, implying that the condition is not or was not fulfilled, the secondary tenses of the indicative are used in both protasis and apodosis. The apodosis takes the adverb av.

The imperfect here refers to present time or to a continued or repeated action in past time, the aorist