DIRECTION 9th. There must be no ellipsis of any word, when such ellipsis. would occasion obscurity. Thus, when we speak of "the laws of God and man,' it is uncertain whether one or two codes of laws are meant; but, in the expression, "the laws of God and the laws of man," the obscurity vanishes. A nice distinction in sense is made by the use or omission of the articles. "A white and red house" means but one house; but "A white and a red house" means two houses. In the expression, "She has a little modesty," the meaning is positive; but by omitting the article, "She has little modesty," the meaning becomes negative. The position of the article, also, frequently makes a great difference in the sense, as will be seen in the following examples: "As delicate a little thing;" "As a delicate little thing."

DIRECTION 10th. The adverb should always be placed as near as possible to the word which it is designed to qualify. Its proper position is generally before adjectives, after verbs and frequently between the auxiliary and the verb. The following sentence exhibits an instance of the improper location of the adverb: "It had almost been his daily custom, at a certain hour, to visit Admiral Priestman." The adverb almost should have been placed before daily. DIRECTION 11th. In the use of passive and neuter verbs, care must be taken that the proper nominative is applied. That which is the object of the active verb must in all cases be the subject or nominative of the passive verb. Thus, we say, with the active verb, "They offered him mercy" (i. e., to him); and, with the passive verb, "Mercy was offered to him;" not "He was offered mercy," because "mercy," not "he," is the thing which was offered. It is better to alter the expression by substituting a synonyme with a proper nomi native or subject, than to introduce such confusion of language, as must necessarily result from a change in the positive, fixed and true significations of words, or from a useless violation of grammatical propriety.

In accordance with this direction (see, also, Direction 6th),

Instead of

He was prevailed on,

He was spoken to,

She was listened to,

They were looked at,
It is approved of,
He was spoken of,
It is contended for,
It was thought of,

He was called on by his friend,
These examples are commented
upon with much humor,

He was referred to as an oracle,

It would be better to say

He was persuaded.

He was addressed.
She was heard.

They were seen, or viewed.
It is liked, or commended.
He was named, or mentioned.
It is maintained, or contested.
It was remembered, or conceived.

He was visited by his friend.

These examples are ridiculed with

much humor.

He was consulted as an oracle.

DIRECTION 12th. All the parts of a sentence should be constructed in such a

manner that there shall appear to be no want of agreement or connection among them. Thus, the following sentence, "He was more beloved, but nɔt so much admired as Cynthio," is inaccurate, because when it is analyzed, it will be, “He was more beloved as Cynthio," etc. The adverb more requires the conjunction than after it; and the sentence should be, "He was more beloved than Cynthio, but not so much admired."

Again, in the sentence, “If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them goes astray," etc., the subjunctive word, have, is used after the conjunction if, in the first part of the sentence, and the indicative goes, in the second. Both of these verbs should be in the indicative, or both in the subjunctive mood.

No definite rule can be given which will enable the learner to make the parts of a sentence agree in themselves, and with one another. They should be diligently compared, and a similarity of construction be carefully maintained; while the learner will recollect that no sentence can be considered grammati cally correct, which cannot be analyzed or parsed by the authorized rules of Syntax.

Construction of Sentences.

In the construction of sentences care should be taken to choose the simplest words, and those which most directly and strikingly convey the meaning you wish to express. Three things are necessary in a correct sentence-purity, propriety, and precision.

Purity consists in using such words and expressions as belong to the idiom of the English language, in place of words or phrases drawn from foreign or dead languages, or that are either ungrammatical, obsolete, newly-coined or not sanctioned by usage. The use of words that are not English is a violation of this rule, and is termed a barbarism. The rule is also violated by the use of words or phrases not constructed in the English idiom. This fault is termed a solecism. By using words or phrases to convey a meaning different from that assigned to them by custom, you also violate the rule. This is termed an impropriety.

Propriety in writing consists in the use of words sanctioned by the usage of the best writers to convey your meaning, and in the avoidance of low, vulgar or less elegant and significant words. In order to remain faithful to this principle, writer should bear in mind the following rules:

Avoid low or slang expressions.

Supply words that are wanting.

Do not use the same word in different senses.

Wherever it is possible, avoid

the use of technical terms; by which is meant terms or expressions used in some

art, occupation or profession.

Do not use ambiguous or equivocal words.

Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent words or phrases.

When words or phrases are not adapted to the ideas you intend to communi cate, avoid the use of them.

Precision means to make your writing a clear and concise statement of your thoughts, so clear that no one reading it can fail to comprehend your exact meaning. You may use words that convey a meaning different from that you intend; or they may not entirely convey your meaning; or they may convey more than you intend. Precision is designed to express neither more nor less

than your exact thought.

Do not make your sentences very long ; neither make them very short. When a sentence is too long, the attention of the reader is drawn off from the first part while considering the last, and he finds it difficult to perceive the connection between them. Short sentences generally weaken the thought. moderate length, clearly and strikingly expressed, are the best.

Sentences of

Style.

"Style," says Dr. Blair, "is the peculiar manner in which a writer expresses his thoughts by words."

Various terms are applied to style to express its character, as a harsh style, a dry style, a tumid or bombastic style, a loose style, a terse style, a laconic or a verbose style, a flowing style, a lofty style, an elegant style, an epistolary style, a formal style, a familiar style, etc.

The divisions of style, as given by Dr. Blair, are as follows: The diffuse and the concise, the nervous and the feeble, the dry, the plain, the neat, the elegant, the florid, the simple, the affected, and the vehement. These terms are altogether arbitrary, and are not uniformly adopted in every treatise on rhetoric. Some writers use the terms barren and luxuriant, forcible and vehement, elevated and dignified, idiomatic, easy and animated, etc., in connection with the terms, or some of the terms employed by Dr. Blair.

The character of the style, and the term by which it is designated, depends partly on the clearness, the fulness, and the force with which the idea is ex pressed; partly on the degree of ornament or of figurative language employed; while the character of the thoughts or ideas themselves is expressed by the names of simple or natural, affected and vehement.

A concise writer compresses his ideas into the fewest words, and these the most expressive.

A diffuse writer unfolds his idea fully, by placing it in a variety of lights.

A nervous writer gives us a strong idea of his meaning-his words are always expressive-every phrase and every figure renders the picture which he would set before us more striking and complete.

A feeble writer has an indistinct view of his subject; unmeaning words and loose epithets escape him; his expressions are vague and general, his arrangements indistinct, and our conception of his meaning will be faint and confused. A dry writer uses no ornament of any kind, and, content with being understood, aims not to please the fancy or the ear.

A plain writer employs very little ornament; he observes perspicuity, pre

priety, purity, and precision in his language, but attempts none of the graces of composition. A dry writer is incapable of ornament-a plain writer goes not it pursuit of it.

A neat writer is careful in the choice of his words, and the graceful collocation of them. His sentences are free from the encumbrances of superfluous words, and his figures are short and accurate, rather than bold and glowing.

An elegant writer possesses all the graces of ornament-polished periods, figurative language, harmonious expressions, and a great degree of purity in the choice of his words, all characterized by perspicuity and propriety. He is one, in short, who delights the fancy and the ear, while he informs the understanding.

A florid or flowery writer is characterized by excess of ornament; and seems to be more intent on beauty of language than solidity of thought.

A simple or natural writer is distinguished by simplicity of plan; he makes his thoughts appear to rise naturally from his subject; he has no marks of art in his expressions, and although he may be characterized by great richness both of language and imagination, he appears to write in that way not because he had studied it, but because it is the mode of expression most natural to him. An affected writer is the very reverse of a simple one. He uses words in uncommon meanings-employs pompous expressions—and his whole manner is characterized by singularity rather than by beauty.

A vehement writer uses strong expressions-is characterized by considerable warmth of manner-and presents his ideas clearly and fully before us.

The following directions are given by Dr. Blair for attaining a good style: The first direction is, study clear ideas of the subject on which you are to write or speak. What we conceive clearly and feel strongly, we naturally express with clearness and strength.

Secondly, to the acquisition of a good style, frequency of composing is indispensably necessary. But it is not every kind of composition that will improve style. By a careless and hasty habit of writing, a bad style will be acquired. In the beginning, therefore, we ought to write slowly, and with much care. Facility and speed are the fruit of experience.

Thirdly, acquaintance with the style of the best authors is peculiarly requisite. Hence a just taste will be formed, and a copious fund of words supplied on every subject. No exercise, perhaps, will be found more useful for acquiring at proper style than translating some passage from an eminent author in our own words, and then comparing what we have written with the style of the author. Such an exercise will show us our defects, will teach us to correct them, and, from the variety of expression which it will exhibit, will conduct us to that which is most beautiful.

Fourthly, caution must be used against servile imitation of any author whatever. Desire of imitating hampers genius, and generally produces stiffness of expression. They who copy an author closely, commonly copy his faults as

well as his beauties. It is much better to have something of our own, though of moderate beauty, than to shine in borrowed ornaments, which will at last betray the poverty of our genius.

Fifthly, always adapt your style to the subject, and likewise to the capacity of your hearers or readers. When we are to write or to speak, we should previously fix in our minds a clear idea of the end aimed at; keep this steadily in view, and adapt our style to it.

Lastly, let no attention to style engross us so much as to prevent a higher degree of attention to the thoughts. He is a contemptible writer who looks not beyond the dress of language; who lays not the chief stress upon his matter, and employs not such ornaments of style as are manly, not foppish.

"It is a useful admonition to young writers," says Archbishop Whately, "that they should always attempt to recast a sentence that does not please; altering the arrangement and entire structure of it, instead of merely seeking to change one word for another. This will give a great advantage in point of copiousness also; for there may be, suppose a substantive (or noun) which, either because it does not fully express our meaning, or for some other reason, we wish to remove, but can find no other to supply its place. But the object may be easily accomplished by means of a verb, adverb, or other part of speech, the substitution of which implies an alteration in the construction. It is an exercise, accordingly, which may be commended as highly conducive to improvement of style to practise casting a sentence into a variety of different forms."

THE English language consists of about thirty-eight thousand words. This includes, of course, not only radical words, but all derivatives; except the preterits and participles of verbs; to which must be added some few terms, which, though set down in the dictionaries, are either obsolete or have never ceased to be considered foreign. Of these, about twenty-three thousand, or nearly fiveeighths, are of Anglo-Saxon origin. The majority of the rest, in what proportion we cannot say, are Latin and Greek; Latin, however, has the larger share The names of the greater part of the objects of sense-in other words, the terms which occur most frequently in discourse, or which recall the most vivid conceptions are Anglo-Saxon. Thus, for example, the names of the most striking objects in visible nature, of the chief agencies at work there, and of the which pass over it, are Anglo-Saxon.

This language has given names to the