It contained stipulations confirming those of former Treaties in favour of the national privileges of Moldavia and Wallachia. and it contained some conditions in favour of the Christian Servians, which, in 1813, were violated with circumstances of great barbarity; but the Servians applied in vain to the Congress of Vienna for mediation or succour.

In 1819 the Porte recognized the Protectorate of Great Britain over the Ionian Islands (f).

In 1828 the Great Powers interfered with the Porte on

(f) The subsequent surrender of this Protectorate in 1863 is considered in the next chapter. Martens, Nouv. Rec. de Traités, xiii. (5 Supp.) 386. The Treaty containing this recognition sets forth the titles of the Sultan, and the style of the Porte's negotiations with Christian States :"Nous, par la grâce du souverain maître des empires et du fondateur immuable de l'édifice solide du califat, par l'influence merveilleuse du modèle des saints, du soleil des deux mondes, notre grand prophète Mahomet Mustapha, ainsi que par la coopération de ses disciples et successeurs, et de toute la suite des saints, sultan, fils de sultan, empereur, fils d'empereur, Mahmoud-Han, vainqueur, fils d'Ahmed-Han, vainqueur, dont les nobles diplômes sont décorés du titre souverain de sultan des deux hémisphères; dont les ordonnances portent le nom éclatant d'empereur des deux mers, et dont les devoirs attachés à notre dignité impériale consistent dans l'administration de la justice, les soins d'un bon gouvernement, et l'assurance de la tranquillité de nos peuples; seigneur et gardien des plus nobles villes du monde, vers lesquelles se dirigent les vœux de tous les peuples, des deux saintes villes de la Mecque et de Médine, du sanctuaire intérieur du pays saint; calife suprême des contrées et provinces situées dans l'Anatolie et la Romélie, sur la mer Noire et sur la mer Blanche, dans l'Arabie et la Chaldée; enfin, glorieux souverain de nombreuses forteresses, châteaux, places et villes, nous déclarons :

:

66 Que, vu la parfaite union et l'éternelle amitié qui règnent entre notre Sublime Porte, d'éternelle durée, et le plus glorieux de tous les grands princes qui croient en Jésus-Christ, le modèle de tous les personnages d'un rang élevé de la nation du Messie, le médiateur des intérêts politiques des peuples, revêtu des ornemens de la majesté et de la gloire, et couvert des marques de la grandeur et de la célébrité, sa Majesté notre très-estimable, ancien, intime, sincère, et constant ami, le roi (padischah) des royaumes unis d'Angleterre, d'Ecosse, et d'Irlande, et d'une grande partie des pays qui en dépendent, George III (dont la fin puisse être heureuse !),

"L'une et l'autre cour ont le désir et l'intention la plus sincère d'affermir les bases de leur amitié, et de resserrer de plus en plus les liens de la bonne intelligence et de l'intimité qui les unit."

behalf of the Greeks, whose independence they established after the battle of Navarino.

In 1829 the Treaty of Adrianople was concluded between Russia and the Porte, by which the power of the former was much increased, especially with regard to the mouths of the Danube, in a manner scarcely consistent with the Public Law of Europe (g). In 1833, the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi was concluded between Russia and the Porte, the avowed object of which was to protect the Porte against the rebellion of the Pacha of Egypt. The casus fœderis contemplated by this Treaty having arisen, the other European Powers interposed, on the double ground of protecting the Porte against Egypt, and of preventing the protectorate of the Porte from being exclusively vested in and exercised by Russia.

A Convention between all the European Powers, except France, took place in London, July 15, 1840, for the pacification of the East, to which the Porte also was a party. The maintenance of the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire as a security for the Peace of Europe was the avowed principle of this Convention.

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The language of the preamble of the Treaty is as follows: "In the name of the most merciful God.

"His Highness the Sultan having addressed himself to "their Majesties the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great "Britain and Ireland, the Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, the King of Prussia, and the Emperor of All the Russias, to ask their support and assist"ance in the difficulties in which he finds himself placed by "reason of the hostile proceedings of Mehemet Ali, Pacha "of Egypt;-difficulties which threaten with danger the "integrity of the Ottoman Empire, and the independence of "the Sultan's throne; their said Majesties, moved by the "sincere friendship which subsists between them and the "Sultan; animated by the desire of maintaining the integrity " and independence of the Ottoman Empire as a security for

(g) Vide post, et vide Calvo, Droit Int. vol. i. pp. 337-8.

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"the peace of Europe; faithful to the engagement which they "contracted by the collective note presented to the Porte by "their representatives at Constantinople, on the 27th of July, 1839: and desirous, moreover, to prevent the effusion " of blood, which would be occasioned by a continuance of "the hostilities which have recently broken out in Syria "between the authorities of the Pacha of Egypt and the subjects of the Sultan; their said Majesties and his Highness the Sultan have resolved, for the aforesaid pur"poses, to conclude together a Convention " (h).

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By the Treaty of the Dardanelles (July 10th, 1841) the five great European Powers admitted the exclusive authority of the Porte over these straits, and incorporated this principle of Law into the written Law (jus pacticium) of Europe (¿). This principle has been preserved by the recent Treaty of Berlin, 1878.

The Treaty of Paris, 1856 (as has been mentioned in a former chapter), placed the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire under the guarantee of England, Austria, and France. But Russia in 1871 practically set at nought the Treaty of Paris, which was, however, in some degree patched up and restored by the Treaty of London, 1871; the Protocol to which stated, that the Powers recognised "that it is an essential principle of the Law of "Nations that none of them can liberate itself from the engagements of a Treaty, nor modify the stipulations "thereof, unless with the consent of the contracting parties by means of an amicable understanding."

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Some of these Treaties, and the events which led to them, will be noticed more at length hereafter. But it is clear, even from this cursory notice, that the Porte must now be considered as subject, with only such exceptions as the reason of the thing may dictate, not only to the principles of general International Law, but to the particular provisions

(h) Hertslet's Treaties, vol. v. p. 544.

(i) Wheaton's Hist. 289, 555–585.

of the European Code (k). The Hatti-Sherif of 1856 relative to the Hierarchy of the Greek Church and non-Mussulman subjects generally, will be considered hereafter (1). The peculiar relations which subsist between the Porte and Egypt will be considered in the next chapter.

(k) Speech of the Earl of Clarendon (Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs), in the House of Lords, April 1853, on the interference of the Continental Powers in the relations subsisting between the Porte and Montenegro. See also the Debates in both Houses of Parliament upon the subject of Russian intervention in Turkey on the ground of an alleged Religious Protectorate of the Greek Church.-Hansard's Parl. Deb. 1853; Koch, iv. 349. Vide post, chapter on "Intervention." I say this non obstante the opinion expressed by M. Guizot, Mém. vi. ch. xxxvii. pp. 257–8.

(1) Ann. Reg. 1856; State Papers, 337. Vide post, "Intervention on Religious Grounds," §. ccccix.

CHAPTER II.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF STATES.

LXIX. HAVING considered the general attributes and characteristics required by International Law for the constitution of a State, it becomes necessary to apply these tests to the different forms of States which are found to exist, in order to fix the position of each in the Commonwealth of Nations. This part of the subject appears to admit of the following principal division:

First. One or more States under One Sovereign.

Secondly. Several States under a Federal Union.

LXX. I.-As to one or more States under one Sovereign. It is proposed to consider this first branch of the principal division under the following heads :

1. Single States, under one Sovereign.

2. Several States perpetually united (reali unione) under one Sovereign.

3. The peculiar case of Poland.

4. Several States temporarily united under one Sovereign (personali unione).

5. A State under the Protectorate of another, or of others, but retaining its International personality.

6. A State under such Protectorate so as to have forfeited

its International personality.-The Ionian Islands.

7. The European Free Towns or Republics.

8. The peculiar case of Belgium.

9. The peculiar case of Greece.

10. States standing in a Feudal relation to other States.— The Turkish Provinces.

11. The peculiar case of Egypt.