ELEMENTARY PARTS OF THE VERB.

Beside

196. The verb is more complex than the noun. the stem and endings (71), it has connecting vowels between them; also, augment and reduplication, put before the stem, and signs of voice, tense, and mode, put after it.

Augment.

197. The augment is the sign of past time. It belongs, therefore, to the historical tenses of the indicative, the imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect.

198. SYLLABIC AUGMENT.

consonant have € prefixed.

Verbs beginning with a

Thus ἔ-λυον from λύω to loose, ἔ-ῤῥιπτον (33) from ῥίπτω to throw. 2. In βούλομαι to wish, δύναμαι to be able, μέλλω to be about to, e often takes the strengthened form η : thus e-βουλόμην or ή-βουλόμην.

199. TEMPORAL AUGMENT. Verbs beginning with a vowel lengthen that vowel (15).

Thus ἤγγελλον from ἀγγέλλω to announce, ἤλπιζον from ἐλπίζω το hope, ὥρμων from ὁρμάω to move, ἱκέτευον (i) from ἱκετεύω (i) to supplicae, ὕφαινον (ϋ) from ὑφαίνω (ϋ) to weave. a. Long vowels remain unchanged by the augment; only a becomes n: as heλovv from ȧ0λéw (ā) to contend.

b. Diphthongs have their first vowel lengthened: thus povv from αἱρέω to take, ᾤκτειρον from οἰκτείρω to pity, ηΰξον from αὔξω to increase. But in av, o, the first vowel sometimes remains unchanged; it is usually so in ev, and regularly so in e, ov.

200. The augment of the pluperfect is applied to the reduplicated stem of the perfect. But if the reduplicated stem begins with a vowel, it remains unchanged in the pluperfect.

Thus perf. λéλvka, pluр. ¿-λeλúкew (often, also, with augment omitted, λελύκειν): perf. ἔσταλκα, from στέλλω to send, pluperf. ἐστάλκειν (not ησταλκειν). But ἀκούω to hear, perf. ἀκήκοα, has ἠκηκόειν or ἀκηκόειν in the pluperfect.

201. A few verbs beginning with a vowel take e as augment. This, with a following e, is contracted to e

Thus ἄγνυμι, aor. ἔ-αξα ; ἕρπω, impf. εἱρπον (for e-ἑρπον). So ἐάω το permit, ἐθίζω to accustom, ελίσσω to wind, ἕλκω to draw, ἐργάζομαι to work, ἕρπω to creep, ἑστιάω to entertain, — οὐρέω, ὠθέω to push, ὠνέομαι to buy : -in the impf., eñoμaι to follow, exw to have, hold: - in the aor., ayvvμı to break, ἁλίσκομαι to be taken. Add 2 aor. of αἱρέω to take, ἵημι to send. a. Opáw to see and av-oiyw to open have both syllabic and temporal augment at the same time: thus é-úpwv, àv-é-wè̟a.

b. These verbs appear to have begun originally with a consonant, digamma (13) or σ (34a): hence euca for e-Faça from Fayvvμι, eîpπov (ε-έρπον) for ε-σερπον from σερπω.

AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS.

202. Compounds, consisting of a preposition and a verb, take the augment after the preposition.

Thus εἰςφέρω to bring in, εἰ έφερον; προςάγω to lead to, προς γον. — a. Prepositions ending in a vowel lose it before e (41): as aτopéрw to bear away, ἀπέφερον. But περί and πρό retain the vowel; and πρό is often contracted with e: as προβαίνω to advance, προέβαινον oι προύβαινον. b. 'E¿, év, and σúv have their proper forms before e (29 a. 30. 30 d): as ἐκτείνω to extend, ἐξέτεινον ; συλλέγω to collect, συνέλεγον.

c. A few verbs have the augment before the preposition: as kaleúdw to sleep, éκábevdov (but also kalnûdov): see also 273 aa. 278. 300 ei. gb. — d. And a few have it at once before and after the prep.: as ȧvéxoμai to endure, ηνειχόμην.

203. Other compound verbs are augmented at the beginning.

Thus οἰκοδομέω to build, ᾠκοδόμουν; δυςτυχέω to be unfortunate, έδυςτύχουν. -a. But after ev- well or dus- ill, a short vowel is sometimes augmented: as εὐεργετέω to do good, aor. εὐηργέτησα οι εὐεργέτησα.

- as

b. Many verbs which begin with a preposition do not consist of a preposition and a verb (333 a). Thus évavтióouai to oppose is not a compound οἱ ἐν and ἀντιόομαι, but is derived from the compound adjective εναντίος opposite. Such verbs, though properly augmented at the beginning, ἠναντιούμην (not ενηντιουμην), -are more commonly augmented after the prep.: as ἐκδημέω to be abroad (from ἔκδημος abroad), ἐξεδήμουν (not ηκδημούν); κατηγορέω to accuse (from κατήγορος accuser), κατηγόρουν (not εκατηγόρουν).

Reduplication.

204. The reduplication is the sign of completed action. It belongs, therefore, to the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect, throughout all the modes.

205. Verbs beginning with a consonant repeat that consonant with e. Thus Auw, perf. λé-Avкa; Jów to offer, τέ-θυκα (37 a).

But-a. When the reduplication-syllable is long by position (49 b), it omits the consonant, and consists of € only.

Thus στέλλω to send, ἔ-σταλκα (not σε σταλκα); ψεύδομαι το lie, ἔ-ψευσ μαι (not πε-ψευσμαι); ῥίπτω to throw, ἔ-ῤῥιφα (33, not ῥε-ῤῥιφα). The perfects Ké-Kтnual possess and μé-μvnμai remember (300 hk. il.) are irregular see also 300 kc. kk.

b. But before a mute and liquid (50) the reduplication has its full form: thus πλέω to sail, πέ-πλευκα ; γράφω to write, γέ-γραφα. But για γνώσκω (γνο) to know, ἔ-γνωκα (50 a).

c. Instead of the reduplication we find e in a few perfects, such as elλnpa from λaußávw (st. λaß) to take: see 300 eo. hq. hu. hv. ig.

206. Verbs beginning with a vowel lengthen that vowel.

The reduplication in these verbs has the same form as the temporal augment (199) : thus ἀγγέλλω, ἤγγελκα ; ἐλπίζω, ἤλπικα ; ὁρμάω, ὥρμηκα; αἱρέω, ᾕρηκα.

207. Some verbs beginning with a, e, o, followed by a single consonant, prefix that vowel and consonant: the vowel of the second syllable is then lengthened. This is called ATTIC REDUPLICATION.

Thus ἀλείφω (αλίφ) to anoint, ἀλ-ήλιφα, ἀλ-ήλιμμαι; ὀρύσσω (ορ χ) το dig, ὀρ-ώρυχα, ὀρ-ώρυγμαι ; — ἐγείρω to wake has ἐγρήγορα (for εγ-ηγορα), but ἐγήγερμαι.

208. Most of the verbs named in 201 have for the reduplication also : thus ἄγνυμι, ἔαγα (orig. FeFaγα); ἐθίζω, εἴθικα (for e-εθικα) ; — δράω, ἑώρακα; ἀνοίγω, ἀνέῳχα. Add the defective perf. ἔ-οικα (st. εικ) am like, appear, plup. éke, and perf. etwa (st. e0 or ne) am accustomed.

209. In compound verbs, the reduplication has the same place as the augment.

Stem and Changes of Stem.

210. Stems are named according to their final letters, vowel-stems, consonant-stems, mute-stems, liquid-stems, etc. Verbs are named according to their stems: thus mute verbs, liquid verbs. Those which have vowel-stems are

commonly called pure verbs.

In some verbs the stem remains unaltered through the whole inflection; but usually it receives some change of form. The changes of the stem are as follows:

I. INTERCHANGE (of vowels, 14).

211. a, e, o are often interchanged.

Thus Tpép-w to nourish, 2 aor. p. ẻ-тpáp-ny, 2 perf. Té-Tpop-a. This occurs chiefly in consonant-stems of one syllable which have a liquid before or after the stem-vowel. a is seen in the 2 aor. of all voices, o in the 2 perf. For a in the 1 perf. and perf. mid. of liquid verbs, see 256 c.

a. e (from ) is exchanged for or in the 2 perf.: see 257 b.

b.

c.

n is sometimes exchanged for w: see 300 fn. ld. nk.

is rarely exchanged for: see 300 lr.

II. LENGTHENING (of vowels. Protraction, 15).

212. Vowel-stems lengthen a final short vowel wherever it is followed by a consonant.

Thus τιμήσω, ἐ-θήρα-σα, πε-φίλη-κα, ἐ-δηλώθην, from τιμά-ω, θηρά-ω, φιλέω, δηλόω. The stems of χρά-ομαι to use, τιτράω to bore, πίμπρημι (πρα) to burn, ἀκροά-ομαι to hear, are irregularly lengthened to χρη, τρη, πρη, ακροά.

a. In many verbs (NON-PROTRACTING VERBS: cf. 291 b) the final vowel of the stem remains short before consonants: thus é-réλE-σα, TE-TÉλE-Kα, etc., from Teλé-w. In some (cf. 291 ba), different tenses vary in this respect.

b. Mi-forms follow a rule of their own: see 270.

213. Some mute-stems lengthen ă, i, v, to ŋ, εɩ, ev, respectively.

Thus λαμβάνω (λάβ) to take, fut. λήψομαι (for ληβ-σομαι); ἔρχομαι (Epx, eλve) to come, fut. èλevσoual (for eλevo-ooμai). These are called VOWEL-STRENGTHENING VERBS. Cf. 221.

a. Consonant-stems often lengthen ǎ in the 2d perf.: see 257 b, c. b. Liquid-stems lengthen a short vowel in the first aorist system: sce 253 b.

214. III. OMISSION (of vowels, 24-5).

Thus γίγνομαι (for γι-γεν-ομαι) to become, χέω (for χεν-ω) to pour. 215. IV. TRANSPOSITION (of vowel and liquid. Metathesis, 32).

Thus st. θαν, 2 aor. ἔ-θανον, 2 perf. inf. τεθνάναι, pres. θνήσκω (212). 216. V. ASPIRATION (of labial or palatal mute). See 257 e.

217. VI. ADDITION OF € (to a consonant-stem).

Thus μάχομαι το fight, aor. ἐ-μαχε-σάμην; χαίρω (χαρ, χαιρ by 223 f, then xaipe) to rejoice, fut. xaipń-ow (212). So also, to a few vowel-stems: of-oual to think, fut. oin-oopai. These are called E-VERBS: cf. 226. 291 d. a. Similarly a few stems annex o oră: as oμ-vvμ to swear, aor. inf. ὀμό-σαι; πέτομαι to fly, 2 aor. ἐ-πτά-μην (214).

218. VII. ADDITION OF σ (to a vowel-stem).

This occurs in the perfect middle and first passive systems, especially of non-protracting verbs (212a): thus τελέω, τετέλεσ-μαι; ἀκούω το hear, kovo-Onv. These are called S-VERBS: cf. 291 c.

219. But the changes of the stem are especially numerous and important in the present system. With reference to these we distinguish the following

CLASSES OF VERBS.

220. FIRST CLASS (Stem-Class).

without change in the present.

The stem appears

Thus μév-w to remain, ǎy-w to lead, — Tiu (for Tua-w), where the stem appears in the uncontracted form,-onuí (see 270 a), where most forms of the present show the stem pa. A few verbs which have or v short in the stem, but long in the present, as λύω (λύ), τρίβω (τρίβ), —

are referred to this class. But for liquid verbs like κρίνω (κρίν), ἀμύνω (aμěv), see 223 f.

221. SECOND CLASS (Lengthening Class). Short a, i, v of the stem are lengthened to n, e, ev, respectively. In general, the short stem appears only in 2 aor. and 2 fut. Here belong some mute verbs, as тhк-ш (тăк) to melt, λeíñ-w (λin) to leave, φεύγω (φύγ) to fee, also, a few verbs in éw from stems in v, as xé-w (for xev-w, 214, st. xv) to pour.

222. THIRD CLASS (Tau Class). The stem assumes in the present.

Here belong verbs in TT, from labial stems (26): thus TÚT-T-W to strike, kaλúπT-w (kaλuß) to cover, Báπт-w (Bap) to dip, dye.. a. Whether the stem ends in 7, or B, or o, may be known from the 2 aor., if this is in use, as ἐ-τύπην, ἐ-βάφ-ην; or from some derived word, as kaλuß-n cabin.

--

223. FOURTH CLASS (Tota Class). The stem assumes in the present, with various euphonic changes (36). Here belong

a. Verbs in σow (or TTW) from palatal stems: thus πрάσσ-w (Tрay) to do, Taρáσo- (Tapax) to disturb. These have έw in the fut. act. Whether the stem ends in x, or y, or x, may be known as in 222 a. - b. A few verbs in oow have lingual stems, with ow in the fut. act. (294 a).

c. Verbs in (w from stems in d or y: thus ppá-w (ppad) to tell, Kрás-w (kрay) to cry. d. The stems κλαγγ, πλαγγ, σαλπιγγ drop the nasal before : as кλáÇ-w to make a noise.

e. Verbs in λλω from stems in x: thus βάλ-λω to throw. — ὀφείλω (opeλ) to owe follows the analogy of f.

f. Verbs in vw, pw, with preceding a, e, i, u: thus paív-w (pav) to show, oup-w (σup) to drag.

g. Here belong kal-w (for кav-i-w, 25) to burn, and кλaí-w (for kλav-1-w) to weep, in Attic often kάw, kλáw, uncontracted.

224. FIFTH CLASS (Nu Class). The stem assumes v in the present, or a syllable containing v.

a. v, as 40á-v-w to anticipate, xáμ-v-w to tire.

b. av, as άuapт-áv-w to err. - c. If the stem is a short syllable with final mute, it is made long by inserting a cognate nasal: thus λauß-áv-w (λăß) to take, pavo-áv-w (uǎ0) to learn, λayx-áv-w (λăx) to get by lot. d. ve, as ik-vé-ouaι to come.

e. vu, as deĺk-vv-u to show; after a vowel, vvv, as oẞé-vvv-u to extinguish.

225. SIXTH CLASS (Sigma-Kappa Class). The stem assumes σk in the present, sometimes with a connecting . Thus apé-σk-w to please, evр-íσx-w to find.

226. SEVENTH CLASS (Epsilon Class). The stem assumes in the present.

Thus dok-é-w to seem, think, fut. dóğw (= doк-σw).