NOTES ON THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION MEETING AT

GLASGOW, 1901.

UNDER the able presidency of Dr. H. R. Mill, Section E (Geography) met on four days during the meetings of the British Association, and listened to twenty-seven papers and reports, in addition to the President's address. Not a few papers of geographical interest were also read before other sections, and on Monday, September 16th, the section met in conference with Sections C and D to discuss "The Objects and Methods of the Scientific Study of the Lakes of the British Islands," with special reference to the scheme of survey to be carried out by Sir John Murray and Mr. Laurence Pullar.

Dr. Mill's address was printed in extenso in the October number of The Geographical Journal, but its salient features may be here briefly indicated. The subject was "Research in Geographical Science," and the author defined geography as "the science which deals with the forms of relief of the earth's crust, and with the influence which these forms exercise on the distribution of all other phenomena," a definition which was elaborated in detail in the earlier part of the address. In classifying the branches of geography, the author recognised mathematical geography as the first and basal division. This merges into physical geography, including geomorphology, oceanography, and climatology, while the geographical distribution of life falls into bio-geography, from which anthropo-geography is sufficiently important to be considered distinct. As divisions of anthropo-geography again must be recognised political geography and commercial geography. From this outline of the scope of geography, the author passed to a consideration of the nature and kind of research requiring to be done to construct a complete geographical description of even the British Islands. He spoke of the survey of British lakes, and of various other detailed survey still requiring to be done, such as the survey of the superficial soil as it affects agriculture, and of methods of synthesis by means of which all the geographical knowledge acquired could be combined and condensed for each unit of area. While recognising that a survey of the British area on the scale thus indicated can hardly be hoped for as yet, the author noted the efforts being put forward in various directions to carry out portions of the work. He pointed out that the dangers of the inadequate recognition of geography as a science have been abundantly exemplified in South Africa, in Venezuela, in Alaska, and elsewhere, and that the kind of research which is most urgently needed cannot be hoped for until the subject of geography is more adequately endowed in Britain than at present.

It may be convenient to note the other papers read before the section according to the nature of the subject discussed rather than in strict chronological order. Historical Geography was represented by a paper by Mr. E. G. Ravenstein, on the old (1459-1507) geographer, Martin Behaim, of Nürnberg, whose claims to fame are said to rest on

three grounds: (1) that he was a pupil of Regiomontanus; (2) that he was a member of Cao's second expedition (1485-86); and (3) that he constructed the first geographical globe, which is still in existence at Nürnberg. In regard to the last fact no doubt exists, but the other two statements are probably erroneous. It would appear probable, however, that Behaim took part in José Visinho's expedition to the Guinea coast in 1484, and also in d'Aveiro's voyage to Benin, which occurred in the same years as Cao's second expedition. Mr. Ravenstein exhibited drawings and photographs of Behaim's globe, and proposes to shortly publish a facsimile of it.

Among the very numerous papers on general Physical Geography, the following may be mentioned: Dr. A. J. Herbertson exhibited a morphological map of Europe, and described the different natural regions into which the continent may be divided, and Mr. H. Yule Oldham gave an interesting description of an experimental demonstration of the curvature of the earth's surface, which was carried out on a six-mile stretch of the New Bedford river, the locality of Dr. A. R. Wallace's experiment in 1870. Mr. Ravenstein presented the final report of the Committee on the "Climate of Tropical Africa." The general conclusion arrived at by the committee is that no single district can be regarded as thoroughly healthy from the point of view of the European, for even where the mean temperature is moderate, this is due to the fact that the days are hot and the nights cold, while at many of the stations the humidity of the atmosphere is a great drawback. In connection with this subject of African climate, mention may be made of Major Ronald Ross's paper on Malaria, read before Section D. From the geographical point of view, perhaps the most interesting point is the measure of success which has already rewarded the efforts made to diminish the number of mosquitoes in e.g. Sierra Leone, by diminishing the pools of stagnant water in which these insects breed, and the proof that malaria can be altogether escaped by Europeans exercising proper precautions.

An interesting paper by Mr. H. N. Dickson dealt with "The Mean Temperature of the Atmosphere and the Causes of Glacial Periods." Starting with the assumption that secular variations of climate in the past have been due to changes in the mean temperature of the atmosphere, the author pointed out that such changes have probably been associated with large relative alterations in the gradient of temperature between the Equator and the Poles. But as this difference of temperature is the primary cause of the whole planetary circulation of the atmosphere, the form and intensity of the latter must have varied with. it. Thus a lowering of the mean temperature would be accompanied by an increase of the Equator-Poleward gradient, a rise by a diminution of it, and in the former case the planetary circulation would become more active, and the tropical high pressure belts would be displaced to lower latitudes. It is suggested that the effect of these changes on the distribution of precipitation, and on the position and direction of the great cyclone tracks, may explain some peculiar features of glacial phenomena.

Other papers on the atmosphere were those by Messrs. Shaw and Rotch. Mr. W. N. Shaw spoke on weather-maps, and the necessity for

synchronous observations in the different parts of the world, a necessity as yet practically recognised only in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. In Europe the different countries have not adopted a common time for their observations. Mr. A. L. Rotch spoke of a method of exploring the atmosphere at sea by means of kites, which could be carried on even in calms with the assistance of steamers.

Dr. Vaughan Cornish read the report of the committee appointed to investigate" Terrestrial Surface Waves," the report including an account of Dr. Cornish's expedition to Canada to study the surface forms of snow. Some very striking photographs of snow-forms were obtained, and a series of observations made on snow-waves and ripples, which differ in several respects from the homologous æolian sand-ripples.

In connection with the remarks made by Dr. Mill in his presidential address in regard to the desirability of studying surface soil, it is interesting to note that Mr. J. R. Kilhoe read a paper on "Geology regarded in its Economic Application to Agriculture by means of Soil Maps" before Section C, in which he dealt with the means by which geological knowledge could best be applied to agriculture, and made readily available to farmers and others, and also described a method of constructing maps to show the main features of the soil in different areas.

In regard to the geography of special districts, Dr. Robert Bell read a paper on the geography and resources of Northern Ontario, and the Report of the Committee on the "Survey of British Protectorates” was read, which contained the following recommendations. First, that the advantages of a common scale should be impressed on local administrations who have already commenced surveys; second, that the attention of local administrators should be drawn to the necessity for adopting a geodetic base in order to test the accuracy of their linear measurements, for without this accuracy of the initial base measurements it is impossible that the various separate surveys can be made to fit into one homogeneous map; third, the Committee emphasise the necessity for co-operation between different workers in connection with mapping, and especially between the Intelligence Department and the Royal Geographical Society; finally, they lay great stress upon the necessity for making use of trained native assistants in regard to topography. This has been done to a very large extent in India, and it is very necessary that it should also be done in Africa.

Several papers were devoted to the regional survey of parts of the Scottish area. Mr. G. F. Scott Elliot spoke on "The Effects of Vegetation in the Valley and Plains of the Clyde," showing by a series of lantern slides how largely the characteristic appearances presented at different parts of the Clyde valley depend upon the nature of the vegetation. The formation of holmlands or flats was proved to depend chiefly on the work of certain marsh plants, especially Scirpus lacustris, Phragmites, Vaucheria, Poa fluitans, and various sedges. The author also proved that the nature of the vegetation controls the slope formation of the sides of the valley throughout, the successive stages in slope formation being traced in several instances in the river Clyde and its tributaries. Prof. W. G. Smith gave an account of the "Botanical Survey of Scotland"

begun by his brother, the late Mr. Robert Smith, and now being carried on by himself. Prof. Smith, among other points, alluded to the difficulty of mapping cultivated land, and especially in distinguishing between land on which wheat can and can not be grown, for the distinction is not absolute, but fluctuates to some extent from economic causes. Miss Newbigin read a paper on the "Investigation of the Natural History of the Forth Valley," which appears in this journal. Two other papers bearing also on Scottish geography were read before sections F and H. One by Dr. J. F. Sutherland dealt with "The Growth and Geographical Distribution of Lunacy in Scotland," and showed that the ratio in the Highlands was greatest, 93 per cent. greater than that for the Midland counties, where it is least, 70 per cent. greater than for the Southern region, and 60 per cent. greater than for the North-Eastern. Dr. Sutherland considers that the high Highland ratio cannot be assigned to any one cause, though no doubt the migration of the strong and healthy to the industrial centres has considerable influence. A less obvious cause is the high rate of infant mortality in the crowded areas-it is nearly four times greater in the Midlands than in the Highlands this removes at an early age children who, in the Highlands, might live to swell the ranks of the insane. The other paper, which was by Messrs. Tocher and Gray on "The Frequency and Pigmentation Value of Surnames of SchoolChildren in East Aberdeenshire," contained some points of considerable interest as regards the races of Scotland. Thus, surnames common among fishing communities had a high pigmentation value, which the authors believe confirms the common view that the fishing population of the East of Scotland is of Belgian origin, the Belgians being the darkest people of Northern Europe. The pigmentation of Highland surnames corresponded closely with the pigmentation in their districts of origin. Thus the blonde Frasers originate in the blonde Inverness district, the dark Robertsons in dark Perthshire, and so on.

At the conference on the scheme put forward by Sir John Murray and Mr. Laurence Pullar, for the investigation of lakes, the purpose of the investigation was put before the meeting, and various members of the Geographical, Geological, and Zoological sections spoke in support of the scheme.

Several papers on Travels and Explorations were read before the section. Dr. F. Moreno exhibited a series of fine slides relating to the ethnology of certain parts of the Argentine Republic, and Mr. Hesketh Prichard described his travels in the same region. A paper on the scientific results of the Belgian Congo Expedition by Captain Lemaire was read on behalf of the author by Staff Commander Dubois Phillips, and illustrated by lantern slides and water-colour drawings. The plans and organisation of the National Antarctic Expedition were described by Dr. J. S. Keltie, and Dr. Mill gave an account of the voyage out to Madeira. Mr. W. S. Bruce spoke of the Scottish Antarctic Expedition, which is to start next year. In Section D the report of the Committee on the Expedition to the Malay States contained many notes on the Natural History and Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula. Dr. Logan Jack read a paper before Section E on Travels in China, which

gave some account of the Chengtu plain and the rivers which fall into it from the north. Portions of the courses of the Ya-lung and Yangtse near Kwa-pit and Li-kiang respectively, were also mapped with more definiteness than had hitherto been attained. The journey made was from Shanghai to Ichang and on to Chengtu, thence after crossing the Mekong and Salwen rivers to Bhamo in Upper Burma. A paper by Mr. Archibald Little on navigation in the Yangtse was read by Mrs. Little, and one on Itineraries in Portuguese Congo by the Rev. T. Lewis.

Two important papers on Political and Commercial Geography were read, one by Mr. G. G. Chisholm on "Geographical Conditions affecting British Trade," and the other by Prof. Alleyne Ireland on "The Influence of Geographical Environment on Political Evolution." Mr. Chisholm pointed out that Britain has commercially a great advantage in regard only to those parts of the world conveniently reached from the seaboard, and therefore all improvements in connection with shipping have increased her advantage, while all improvements in reference to the means of communication between inland centres of production and inland markets have relatively diminished her trade advantage. The industrial advantage of Britain depends on the abundance of iron and coal in convenient situations, and tend to diminish with the development of the coal and iron fields of other countries, e.g. of Germany and the United States. Again, in recent years there has been a great development of the means of utilising water-power, which tends to the advantage of such countries as Switzerland, Norway, etc., more than to Britain. The case of Italy is specially interesting, for she is now beginning to utilise water-power largely, and from her situation is eminently well-fitted for the development of a great carrying-trade. In the interesting discussion which followed, Mr. Atkinson of Boston, U.S.A., foreshadowed the effects on the commerce of the world of the adoption by America of Free-Trade principles. Prof. Ireland's thesis, briefly stated, was that experience proves that the natives of tropical and sub-tropical countries are incapable of being trusted with governing powers, and that therefore representative institutions are not suited for tropical countries. In all such countries he believes that the duties of administration must rest in the hands of specially trained Europeans. Unfortunately, no opportunity for discussion presented itself at the close of this paper.

This report will show that many of the papers read before Section E were of considerable scientific value, and by their diversity should tend to improve the position held by geography in this country by showing the wide range of subjects included in the science.