Defence fund.

Inauguration Day.

Section 1, clause 7.

officials to carry on some investigation relative to National affairs whose salaries have not been otherwise provided for and whose negotiations should be secret.

In 1898, owing to the war with Spain, Congress passed a special measure placing in the hands of President McKinley $50,000,000 to be used as a "defence fund." An appropriation of such magnitude for which there was not to be an account given has never before been made in the history of our Nation.

One of the most notable of our civic festivals occurs on the fourth of March of each fourth year, when the President and the Vice-President are formally invested with their offices. Thousands of people go to Washington to witness the inaugural exercises. The Constitution makes no further provision than that the President take the oath of office and enter upon his duties at a prescribed time.

Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the following oath or affirmation :

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States."

It has been established by custom that the oath is administered by the Chief Justice of the United States at the east front of the Capitol, but the oath might be administered by any other magistrate having the power of administering oaths. The Vice-President takes the oath of office shortly before in the presence of the Senate of the United States. After taking the oath, the President gives his inaugural address, which outlines the policy he purposes to carry out in the execution of his duties.

SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS AND REFERENCES.

1. a. For some of the problems connected with the Electoral Colleges in the history of elections, see Rev. of R's, 23: 66-69.

b. What is the method used in counting the Electoral votes? Edmund Alton, Among the Law Makers,

88-89.

2. a. Do you agree with Mr. Bryce that the tendency is to select men for President who have not been prominent? Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, chapter 8.

b. Was the present President notable before his election? In what ways?

c. What were the chief causes for the success of his party?

d. How many Electoral votes were required for election? He received how many? Did he receive a majority of the popular votes ?

e. How many Electors were there from your State? For whom did they vote? How is this majority in your State to be accounted for? Election of 1900, Rev. of R's, 22: 673–674; 655-658; 664. 3. Would successful governors make good candidates for President? In what particulars do the offices resemble each other? Would you favor making the governor of your State President? Wilson, Congressional Government, 253, 254.

4. Under what conditions did Aaron Burr become VicePresident? Harrison, This Country of Ours, 82; Walker, The Making of the Nation, 185; Hart, Formation of the Union, 173.

5. Why was the election of John Quincy Adams of especial interest? What results followed? Burgess, The Middle Period, 140-141; Wilson, Division and Reunion, 18.

6. State the chief points connected with the " disputed election" of 1876. Wilson, Division and Reunion, 283-286; Johnston, American Politics, 233-237.

7. What is the meaning and significance of “amendment by usage"? Can you give other examples of amendment in this way? Bryce, American Commonwealth, I, chapter 34; Wilson, Congressional Government, 250.

8. Where was Alexander Hamilton born? Under what conditions did he come to the United States? What services did he render in the organization of the government? Lodge, Alexander Hamilton, American Statesmen Series.

9. Give the names of the Presidents who have died in office. By whom were they succeeded?

10. Why was the "defence fund" of $50,000,000 necessary? Forum, 25:267–275.

11. Interesting accounts of inaugural incidents and personages:

a. Inauguration Scenes and Incidents, Century Mag., 53733-740.

b. Davis, The Inauguration, Harper's Mag., 95:337–

355.

c. Inauguration events of 1901, Rev. of R's, 23: 405

406.

CHAPTER XXIV

POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE PRESIDENT

"UNITY of plan, activity, and decision are indispensable to success; and these can scarcely exist, except when a single magistrate is entrusted exclusively with the power." This is especially true in military affairs, hence the provision :

The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.

Fears were expressed in the State conventions when considering the ratification of the Constitution lest the President might, under this provision, take charge of the army and navy in person, and as a dictator endanger the liberties of the Nation.

The monarch of Great Britain is commander-in-chief of the army and navy and militia; he has power to declare war, and in time of war can raise armies and navies and call out the militia. Parliament may check his action only by the refusal to vote supplies. The Emperor of Germany must obtain the consent of the Bundesrath, or upper house, before he may declare offensive war. The President of France may not declare war without the advice of the Chambers.

Reprieves.

Section 2,

clause 2. Treaties.

The temporary suspension of the execution of a sentence is called a reprieve. By means of a reprieve, the President may gain time to look into the evidence more carefully in order to ascertain whether there is good reason for granting the requested pardon.

Complete release from a sentence is secured by a pardon. The power to pardon also carries with it the right of commuting the sentence. By this, a decree calling for imprisonment for life may be reduced to a fixed term of years, or a death penalty may be mitigated to imprisonment for life, etc.*

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur.

While the power to conclude treaties seems to be without restriction, it is implied that no treaty shall in any way interfere with the authority of the Constitution. The usual steps in the negotiation of treaties are as follows: 1. In time of peace they are conducted at the capital of the nation that begins the negotiation. If this is in Washington the terms are considered by the Secretary of State and the minister of the other nation. If in a foreign capital, our minister acts under instructions sent him by the Secretary of State. At times one or more special ministers are sent abroad for the purpose of negotiating for a treaty. 2. In time of war, the minister of the nation with which we are at war leaves the United States. The interests of his nation are then intrusted to the minister of some neutral power, and through this minister negotiations for peace are usually begun. 3. The treaty of peace at the close of a war

*President Harrison considered, during his term, 779 pardon cases, not including reprieves. Of these 527 were granted in whole or in part. President Cleveland acted on 907 such cases and granted 506 in whole or in part.