369 LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE.-No. VI. the wealth, and the vanity of the Romans, led them to increase the number, the magnitude, and the decorations of their edifices to a degree far beyond those of Greece. In the theatre of Marcellus, and in the Coliseum, the Doric and the Ionic styles were both introduced; but the Corinthian style, with its rich ornaments, was most adapted to the taste of the masters of the world; and as if not left by the inventors in shape sufficiently expressive of splendour and magnificence, Fig. 16. THE origin of the Tuscan order of architecture is involved in The Pantheon. by Tarquinius Priscus and finished by Tarquinius Superbus, said to have been built by Etrurians, and the tomb of Porsenna, king of that people, were splendid early specimens of this order; but no remains of them are to be found. The column of Trajan, built about a century after the Christian era, and which remains to this day, is considered to be a remarkable specimen of the Tuscan column. After the introduction of the Grecian orders of architecture into their edifices, the Romans chiefly employed Greek artists, and made no alteration upon these orders, except sometimes blending them together in the same building. In general, Fig. 17. they loaded every member of it with ornaments unknown to the Greeks. In the Composite, sometimes called the Roman order, there was espe cially a profusion of ornament; and there was scarcely a moulding which was not loaded with decorations. When the particular members could receive no more ornaments, they had recourse to varying the outlines of their edifices (particularly their temples) into every shape that could be produced by the union of circular and triangular figures. Specimens of the Roman style of architecture are to be seen in the arch of Titus and the baths of Diocletian; and two magnificent capitals are to be seen in the baptistry of Constantine, which belonged to some elder edifice whose history is now unknown. For a specimen of the column of the Composite order, see fig. 20. In the decline and fall of the Roman empire, Constantine the Great transferred the capital from Rome to Byzantium, and attempted to make the latter rival the former in monumental grandeur by erecting immense public edifices. Here, however, as in Italy, art and science took a retrograde course, and the elegant orders invented by the Greeks rapidly lost their original purity and simplicity. A new style was then grafted on Roman art; the capitals lost their graceful outlines, and assumed cubical forms; the columns were shortened, and the entablature no longer possessed its regular proportions. This style of they employed the Corinthian order as the most elegant; and architecture was called the Byzantine; its ornamentation was a modification of this order is attributed to them, as the only no more that of Rome; it again approached the older Greek attempt which they made at originality in architecture; but style, but shorn of the grandeur and magnificence of the whole, some are inclined to believe that even this invention was due to and of the exquisite beauty of its details. The Byzantine some Greek architect. This new order was called the Com-style lasted during the period of the Eastern empire, and to this posite, because it was in fact a compound order, made by the day it is employed by the Greeks in their buildings. From union of the Corinthian and the Ionian orders. The power, the combined influences of that empire, and the memorials 24 VOL I. 370 Fig. 19. Fig. 20. which Rome still preserved in the first ages of the Christian fourth or a fifth of its thickness. Bilasters have their bases, era, of the finest periods of her architecture, a variety of capitals, and entablatures with the same parts, heights and prostyles arose, of which the oldest was called the Latin style,jections as columns have; and they are distinguished like them, because it was adopted by the whole of the Latin church. by the names of the five orders of architecture, Doric, Ionic, Numerous examples of this style are to be found in Italy, and Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite. They are supposed to be some in France; such as the churches of St. Laurence-without- of Roman origin, as they only appear in the later periods of the-wall and St. Agnes, at Rome; the ancient bapistry of Greek architecture; and they are much more numerous in the St. an, at Poitiers, &c. This style, in which may be found Roman monuments. Vitruvius calls them parastata because of al: the divisions of an order, was preserved entire until the age their standing close to a building or forming part of it. The of Charlemagne, of which the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle, Greeks, though they did use pilasters in their designs, had a kind and the porch of the monastery of Lorsch are striking proofs. of square pillars at the end of their walls which they called After the reign of this emperor, new innovations and a retro-ante, and which sometimes projected a good way from the Attics were a sort of low square pillars grade movement in the forms of the orders of architecture led principal front; they were also at the entrances to a building. to the Komanesque style, in which all regular proportion was completely abandoned, and in the most of the applications of with their cornices, which originated in These were ranged conceal the roof. this style the entablature was altogether omitted. From the Athens, and were used in buildings to Roma sque to the pointed style the transition was easy; in the latter the column departed still more from the rules established by antiquity; it was lengthened out of all proportion, and degenerated into a group of slender pilLars. Towards the end of the middle ages, the fact of the numerous relations which subsisted between Italy and all parts of Europe, and of the continued existence in that country of the principles and specimens of ancient architecture led to a return to the established rules of the Greeks and the Romans. This return produced a change in the appearance of architectual monuments in Europe; this epoch, which was called the Renaissance period, brought back the different orders to reaJonable and true proportions, and architecture has continued in this state, with more or less variation, to the present day. In our first page are represented some odern edifices built after the most ornamental of the Greek styles of architecture; namely, fig. 16, the Pantheon or Church of St. Genevieve; fig. 17, the Church of the Magdalen; fig. 18, the Bourse, or Exchange: all in Paris. The church of St. Paul's, London, which we pass every day, unites the Corinthian and Composite orders. Tuscan Order. in a continued line, and raised above A series of columns, separate or con- Composite Order. It is now time to give an explanation of the terms used in speaking of the lifferent orders of architecture. Among the Greeks an order was composed of columns and an entablature; the Romans added pedestals under the columns of various orders to increase their height. The column is generally a round pillar constructed either to support or to adorn an edifice. Besides columns the Greeks employed human figures to support the entablature. Vitruvius informs us that when male figures were employed they were called Persians, to indicate the contempt in which that nation was held; and they represented these figures accordingly in the most suffering posture, and loading them as it were with the heaviest entablature, that of the Doric order; and when female figures were used, they were called Cariatides, to signify their contempt for the Every column, except the Doric, to which the Romans give Carians, whose wives had been taken away captive in their wars with the Athenians. Some critics doubt the truth of no base, is composed of a base, a shaft, and a capital. The these stories of Vitruvius, and endeavour to account for the base is that part of the column, which is beneath the shaft and origin of the figures and their names in a different manner. upon the pedestal, when a pedestal is used; it has a plinth, a Whether the Greeks invented this mode of supporting entab-member of a flat and square form like a brick, called in Greek latures, or copied it from the ancient Egyptian edifices or from plinthos, with mouldings that represent rings, with which the the tombs and temples of India and Persia, it is needless to bottoms of pillars were bound, to prevent their cleaving. These inquire. Fragments of male figures apparently employed for rings, when large, are called tori, and when small, astragals. each torus, called rundeis, scotia, or trochilus. the same purposes, have been found among the ancient Roman The tori have generally hollow spaces cut round between monumental remains. The pilaster is a square pillar used for the same purpose as The shaft of the column is the round and even part extend ing from the base to the capital; this part of the column is narrower at the top than at the bottom. Some architoos would give the column a greater breadth at the third part of its height, than at the bottom of the shaft; there is no instance of this being practised among the ancients. Others make the shaft a cylinder from the bottom to the third part of its height, and thus lessen it from this to the top. And some consider that it should begin to lessen from the bottom. The capital is the upper part of the column immediately above the shaft. The entablature is the part of the order above the columns, and is composed of three parts: 1. The architrave* or lower part; 2. The frieze or middle part; and 3. the cornice or upper part. The architrave represents a beam, and lies immediately above the capitals of the columns: the Greeks called it epis tylion. The frieze is the space between the architrave and the cornice; it represents the ceiling of the building. The cornice is that which surmounts the whole order; it is composed of several mouldings, which, projecting over each other, are employed to shelter the order from the rain upon the roof. The pedestal is the lowest part of an order. It is of a cubical or prismatic form, and consists of three parts: 1. the base or foot which stands on the area or pavement; 2. the die or middle part which rests upon the base; and 3. the cornice or wave, upon which the column is placed. The use of pedestals appears to have been introduced into architecture subsequent to the loss of political independence in Greece. In the original examples of Greek architecture the columns are generally formed standing on the uppermost of three steps; the temple of Theseus has but two steps. When the Romans elevated the floors of their temples and other edifices, they were obliged to discontinue the erection of front stairs, on account of their inconvenience in occupying so much ground around the building, and to adopt the pedestal or podium raised to a level with the top of the stairs, and projecting to the front of the steps which profiled it on all sides. Vitruvius makes no mention of pedestals, in treating of the Doric, Tuscan, and Corinthian orders; and in treating of the Ionic, speaks of the pedestal as a part of the construction, but not of the order. EXERCISES.-According to this model, form habeor, am possessed; terreor, I am frightened; exerceor, I am exercised. VOCABULARY. Despéro 1, despair; augeo, augere auxi, auctum, I increase (E. R. augment); deterreo 2, I frighten from, deter; oppleo, opplere opplevi, oppletum 2, I fill up; jungo, jungere, junxi, junctum 3, Ijoin; vivo, vivere, vixi, victum 3, I live; cingo, cingere, cinxi, cinctum 3, I surround; propositum, i, n. a proposition, design onis, f. blockade; cognitio, ónis, f. knowledge; subitus, a, um, fossa, ae, f. a ditch, moat; difficultas, atis, f. difficulty; obsidio, sudden; naturális, e, natural; castra, orum, a camp; extemplo, ad. forthwith; strenuè, earnestly, strenuously; postquam, afterwards. EXERCISES.-LATIN-ENGLISH Exerceor; exerceris; exercetur; exercebar; exercebaris; ex ercebatur; exercebor; exercebere; exercebitur; pater curat ut ut puer bene exerceatur; pater curabat ut filius bene exerceretur; ego, bene exercear; oppletur fossa; curo ut bene exercearis; curo enrabam ut bene exercererts; curabam ut filia tua bene exerceretur; quis nescit quam praeclaris fructibus animi nostri in literarum studiis augeantur; timemus ne exercitus noster ab hostibus vineatur; omnes cives metuebant ne urbs ab hostibue obsidione cingeretur; quum in literis exercemur, animi nostri multarum rerum. utilium cognitione augentur; quum subito periculo terremur, non debemus extemplo de salute desperare; virtutis nonos nulla oblivione delebitur; pueri in literarum studiis strenue exerciti sunt; metuebamus ne urbs ab hostibus obsidione cincta esset; metuo ne milites subito periculo territi sint; strenue exercetor puer: ne rerum difficultatibus a proposito deterretor; boni discipuli student exerceri in literarum studiis; puer bene educatus omnibus placet ; hostes territi in castris manent; pueri strenue exercendi sunt. ENGLISH-LATIN. The boys are earnestly exercised; let boys be earnestly exercised; Participle. the boys must be strenuously exercised; the boys will be strenuously exercised; the boys are streneously exercised; the boys were being strenuously exercised; the boys have been strenuously exercised; the boys will have been strenuously exercised; I take care that the boys are (may be, in Latin) strenuously exercised; I took care the boys were (might be) strenuously exercised; my sisters have been strenuously exercised; the girl will have been strenuously exercised; I fear the city will be surrounded with blockade (blockaded). monendus monitus • Architrave is a mongrel term, derived from arche, Gr. beginning or foundation, and trabs, Lat, a beam. Duco, ducere, duxi, ductum 3, I lead; pingo, pingere, pinxi, pinctum 3, I paint (E.R. picture); instruo, instruere, instruxi instructum 3, I draw up, form (E.R. instruct); acies, ei, f. a line of battle; vivo, vivere, vixi, victum 3, I live; quoad, as long as; gero, gerere, gessi, gestum 3, I carry on; simulatque, as soon as; excolo, excolere, excolui, excultum 3, I cultivate; corrigo, corrigere, correxi, correctum 3, I correct; comburo, comburere, combussi, combustum 3, I burn; disco, discere, didici, I learn; libenter, willingly; defendo, defendere, defendi, defensum 3, I defend; coerceo, coercere, coercui, Coercitum 2, I restrain; dico, dicere, dixi, dictum 3, I say. EXERCISES.-LATIN-ENGLISH. Duximus; duxisti; ducis; ducebam; ducet; ducat; dum ego pingebam, tu scribebas, et frater legebat; hostes aciem instruebant; quoad vives bene vives; si virtutem coletis, boni te diligent; hostes aciem instruxerunt; hostes aciem instruent; multas literas hodie scripsimus; bellum atrocissimum gesserunt hostes; Caesar aciem instruxerat; simulatque literas scripserimus ambulabimus; curo ut puerorum animos excolam; curabam ut filii mei preceptor animum excoleret; nemo dubitat quin ego puerum semper diligenter correxerim; metuimus ne hostes urbem combusserint; nemo dubitat quin hostes urbem obsidione cincturi sint; narrate nobis quid parentes scripserint; scribito; disce, puer; boni pueri libenter discunt; miles se fortiter contra hostes defendens, laudatur; cupiditates coercere debemus. ENGLISH-LATIN. I defended the city; the soldiers defended the city; they will defend the city; they have defended the city; they were writing; he has written a letter; no one doubts that you will write a good letter; take care to write a letter; the teacher takes care that his scholars write good letters; I have written a letter to-day; the enemies will draw up (their) line of battle; the soldiers have burnt the city, I have read the letter which thou wrotest; I fear that the enemies will blockade the city; correct that boy; the master will take care to correct his scholars; tell (narro) me what thou saidst to thy father; restrain thy desires; we ought to restrain our desires; a boy (by) restraining his desires is loved; strenuously cultivate thy mind, my son! LESSONS IN MUSIC.-No. IX. WHILE Our pupils are advancing in their own practical stady of the three principal notes of the scale, in connexion with the tunes given in this and the following lesson, we shall usefully occupy our time in reviewing and making the more sure some of the steps already taken. One of the chief anxieties of the art of teaching is that of ascertaining where lie the real difficulties of our pupils. This we are enabled to do by means of the correspondence with which we have been favoured. Most of the mistakes of our pupils have arisen from careless reading or from a forgetfulness of the pledge to which at first we sought to bind them. This was the pledge: "We Lave only two things to ask of you;-the first, that you will be content to learn one thing at a time, instead of being impatient for knowledge not for the moment helpful, perhaps just then only confusing to you; the second, that when something is set before you to be done, you will really do it, instead of supposing it to be done and going on; for only by doing we truly understand." But without judging our friends too nicely we will try to meet their difficulties. Those difficulties relate to the "modulator," the "pattern," and "the moveable DOH." 2. "What I want," says one of our correspondents, "is to be able to measure to the eye the exact interval the voice is taking." It is just for this purpose that the modulator is provided. The ordinary staff of five lines and four spaces does not measure to the eye the exact interval the voice is taking, because it fails to show pictorially the places of the "semitones" (tonules) of the scale, and, indeed, makes, pictorially, no difference between tone and "semitone." This is, however, a point of vital importance to the learner, and one which should be kept constantly before his eyes. Hence the necessity of some such scale as the modulator offers. The modulator also possesses the advantage of showing not only lines or markes for the notes, but the names middle column at present. In order thus to measure to the of the notes themselves. Our pupils have to use only the eye the interval the voice is taking, our pupil must not be constantly looking from the book to the modulator and from the modulator to the book. He must first learn a few notes of his tune "by heart" and then sing them from the modulator alone, and so on till he can point the whole tune from memory, and without the book. Thus, if he i learning exercise five, let him just read and repeat to himself "DOH, SOH, ME, DOH" several times over. Then let him, laying aside his book, turn to the modulator and sing those notes while he points to them. Next let him learn to "point and sing," without book, the phrase "ME, ME, DOH" in the same manner, and after that the made us feel increasingly the importance of requiring the whole exercise. Very extensive experience in teaching has pupils thus to "see," and themselves point out, the intervals they sing on a perfect scale like the modulator. It is only by the pupil will begin at the beginning and faithfully pursue this this painstaking that a real knowledge of interval is gained. If plan, we can promise him that long before he has reached this ninth lesson he will have attained such a facility in "pointing from memory on the modulator" as will make the exercise quite a delightful one to him. "Oh," said a little girl to her mamma, as they were travelling in a railway-train, and a stranger opened a number of the POPULAR EDUCATOR, "Oh, mamma, there's a modulator!" "What do you know of the modulator?" said the stranger. "Oh! I know something," was the answer, and the happy child soon convinced the stranger that she "knew something" by singing and "pointing" as she sang several of the tunes she had learnt at school. Upwards of a hundred and fifty adult pupils from various classes in London last season took "certificates of proficiency," implying the ability to sing plain music at first sight, and every one of them was required to bring proofs to the examiners of his ability to sing and point on this scale from memory a large number of tunes. Let not our pupils of the POPULAR EDUCATOR be behind the others in this vital exercise of self-discipline. 3. Many of our correspondents want to know "whether they can learn the Music Lessons without the aid of a friend to set the pattern." A large number of our pupils are, no doubt, like one of them who says, "I have naturally a good ear for music, and am able to sing almost any song after hearing it two or three ames." To such persons, very little patterning |