dinary strength, turing a roller by the han dle, can act for a whole day against a resist. ance equal to 30 lbs. weight; and, if he' works ten hours in a day, he will raise a weight of 30 lbs. 3 feet in a second; or, if the weight be greater, he will raise it so much iess in proportion. But a man may act, for a small time, against a resistance of 50 lbs., or more. If two men work at a windlass, or roller, they can more easily draw up 70 lbs. than one man can 30 lbs., provided the elbow of one of the handles be at right angles to that of the other. And, with a fly or heavy wheel applied to it, a man may do one-third part more work, and, for a little while, act with a force, or overcome a continual resistance, of 80 lbs., and work a whole day when the re. sistance is but 40 lbs. Men used to carrying, such as porters, will carry, some 150 lbs., others 200 or 250 lbs., according to their strength. A man can draw about 70 or 80 lbs. ho. rizontally; for he can but apply about half his weight. To contrive a Proper Machine that shall move 2. But the proportion of the velocity of a Given Weight with a Given Power, or, the power and weight must not be made too with a Given Quantity of Force, shall over- great neither. For it is a fault to give a macome any other Given Resistance. [From chine too much power, as well as too little Emerson's Principles of Mechanics.] for if the power can raise the weight, and overcome the resistance, and the engine perform its proper effect in a convenient time, and works well, it is sufficient for the end proposed. And it is in vain to make more additions to the engine, to increase the power As to horses: A horse is, generally speak. any further; for that would not only be aing, as strong as five men. A horse will car. needless expense, but the engine would losery 240 or 270 lbs. time in working. A horse draws to greatest advantage when If the weight of a man be 140 lbs. he can act with no greater a force in thrusting ho. rizontally, at the height of his shoulders, than 27 lbs. If the given power is not able to over come the given resistance, when directly applied, that is, when the power applied is less than the weight or resistance given, then the thing is to be performed by the help of a machine made with levers, wheels, pullies, screws, &c., so adjusted, that when the weight and power are put in motion on the machine, the velocity of the power may be at least so 3. As to the power applied to work the en-the line of direction is a little elevated above much greater than that of the weight, as the gine, it may be either a living power, as men, the horizon, and the power acts against his weight and friction of the machine, taken to- horses, &c., or an artificial power, as a breast; and can draw 200 lbs. for eight gether, is greater than the power. For on spring, &c., or a natural power, as wind, hours in a day, at two miles and a half in an this principle depends the mechanism or con-water, fire, weights, &c. hour. If he draw 240 lbs. he can work but trivance of mechanical engines, used to draw When the quantity of the power is known, six hours, and not go quite so fast. And, in or raise heavy bodies, or overcome any other it matters not, as to the effect, what kind of both cases, if he carries some weight, he will force. The whole design of these being to power it is. For the same quantity of any draw better than if he carried none. And give such a velocity to the power in respect sort will produce the same effect; and differ. this is the weight a horse is supposed to be of the weight, as that the momentum of the ent sorts of powers may be applied, in an able to draw over a pulley, out of a well. In power may exceed the momentum of the equal quantity, a great variety of ways. a cart, a horse may draw 1000 lbs. weight. For, if machines are so contrived The most easy power applied to a machine The most force a horse can exert is when that the velocities of the agent and resistant is weight, if it be capable of effecting the he draws something above a horizontal po. are reciprocally as their forces, the agent thing designed. If not, then wind, water, sition, will just sustain the resistant; but, with a &c., if that can conveniently be had, and The worst way of applying the strength of greater degree of velocity, will overcome it. without much expense. a horse is to make him carry or draw up So that, if the excess of velocity in the power A spring is also a convenient moving pow-hill. And three men, in a steep hill, carry. is so great as to overcome all that resistance er for several machines; but it never acts ing each 100 lbs., will climb up faster than a which commonly arises from the friction or equally, as a weight does; but is stronger, horse with 300 lbs. attrition of contiguous bodies, as they slide by when much bent, than when but a little bent, Though a horse may draw in a round one another, or from the cohesion of bodies and that in proportion to the degree of bend. walk of 18 feet diameter, yet such a walk that are to be separated, or from the weights ing, or the distance it is forced to. But should not be less than 25 or 30 feet dia. of bodies to be raised, the excess of the force springs grow weaker by often bending, or re-meter. remaining, after all these resistances are maining long bent; yet they recover part 5. Every machine ought to be made of as overcone, will produce an acceleration of of their strength by lying unbent. few parts, and those as simple as possible, to motion proportional thereto, as well in the The natural powers, wind and water, may answer its purpose; not only because the exparts of the machine, as in the resisting body. be applied with vast advantage to the work-pense of making and repairing will be less, Now, how a machine may be contrived to ing of great engines, when managed with but it will also be less liable to any disorder. perform this to the best advantage will ap-skill and judgment. The due application of And it is needless to do a thing with many, pear from the following rules: these has much abridged the labors of men; which may be done with fewer parts. 1. Having assigned the proportion of your for there is scarce any labor to be perform- 6. If a weight is to be raised but a very power and the weight to be raised, the next ed, but an ingenious artificer can tell how to little way, the lever is the most simple, easy, thing is to consider how to combine levers, apply these powers to execute his design, and ready machine. Or if the weight be wheels, pullies, &c., so that, working to- and answer his purpose. For any constant very great, the common screw is most progether, they may be able to give a velocity motion being given, it may, by a due appli. per. But if the weight is to be raised a great to the power, which shall be, to that of the cation, be made to produce any other mo. way, the wheel and axle is a proper power, weight, something greater than in the pro-tions we desire. Therefore, these powers and blocks and pullies are easier still; and portion of the weight to the power. This are the most easy and useful, and of the the same may be done by the help of the perdone, you must estimate your quantity of greatest benefit to mankind. Besides, theypetual screw. friction, by the last prop. ; and if the veloci-cost nothing, nor require any repetition or Great wheels, to be wrought by men or ty of the power be to that of the weight still renewing, like a weight or a spring, which cattle, are of most use and convenience when in a greater proportion than the weight and require to be wound up. When these can- their axles are perpendicular to the horizon; friction taken together is to the power, then not be had, or cannot serve our end, we have but if by water, &c., then it is best to have your machine will be able to raise the weight. recourse to some living power, as men, their axles horizontal. And note, this proportion must be so much horses, &c. greater, as you would have your engine work taster. 7. As to the combination of simple ma. 4. Men may apply their strength several chines together, to make a compound one ways, in working a machine. A man of or-"though the lever, when simple, cannot raise a weight to any great height, ani, in this bel with tar or grease; the teeth of wheels of sticks, &c., and observe how far they are case, is of little service, yet it is of great usemus: be made to fit and fill up the openings, carried in a second, or any given time. when compounded with others. Thus, the and cut in the form of epicycloids. All the But if it flow through a hole in a reservoir, spokes of a great wheel are all levers, per-axles, where the motion is, and all teeth or standing receptacle of water, the velocity petually acting; and a beam fixed to the ax- where they work, and all parts that, in work will be found from the depth of the hole be. is to draw the wheel about by men or horses, ing, rub upon one another, must be made low the surface. = is a lever. The lever, also, may be com- snooth; and, when the machine goes, must Thus, let s 16 fe t, v velocity of the bined with the screw, but not conveniently be oiled or greased. If a joint is to go pret-fluid per second. B = the area of the hole. with pullies, or with the wedge. The wheel ty s iff and steady, rub a little grease upon it. H height of the water; all in feet. Then and axle is combined with great advan- The axis a (fig. 1) of a wheel may have the velocity v✓ 2sH; and its force = the tage with pullies. The screw is not well its friction diminished, by causing it to run บม B or HB of water, combined with pullies; but the perpetual on two rollers, B C, turning round with it, weight of the quantity 2s screw, combined with the wheel, is very ser-upon two centres. 621 or = HB hundred weight; because a When you have but a small quantity of water, you must contrive it to fall as high as you can, to have the greater velocity, and, consequently, more force upon the engine. 15. If water is to be conveyed through pipes to a great distance, and the descent be but small, so much larger pipes must be used, because the water will come slow. And these pipes ought not to be made straight. er in some places than others; for the quan ity of water conveyed through them depends pon the bigness of the bore at the straightest place. viceable. The wedge cannot be combined Likewise, instead of the teeth of wheels, with any other mechanical power, and it only one may place little wheels, as A B, (fig. 2,)||cubic foot is 624 lbs. avoirdupois. Also, performs its effect by percussion; but this running upon an axis in its centre. And this hogshead is about 84 feet, or 531 lbs. and force of percussion may be increased by en-will take away almost all the friction of the a tu is four hogsheads. gines. teeth. And, in lanterns or trundles, the Pullies may be combined with pullies, and rounds may be made to turn about, instead wheels with wheels; therefore, if any single of being fixed. wheel would be too large, and take up too In all machines with wheels, the axles or much room, it may be divided into two or spindles ought not to shake, which they will three more wheels and trundles, or wheels do if they be too short; and their ends ought and pinions, as in clock-work, so as to have just to fill their holes. the same power, and perform the same effect. When the teeth of a wheel are much worn In wheels with teeth, the number of teeth away, it makes that wheel move irregularly that play together in two wheels ought to be about, increases the friction, and requires prime to each other, that the same teeth my more force, and may cause the teeth of two not meet at every revolution. For, when wheels to run foul upon one another, and to different teeth meet, they by degrees wear stop their motion, and endanger breaking the themselves into a proper figure; therefore teeth. To prevent this, proper care should Pipes of conduct coming directly from an they should be contrived that the same teeth be taken to dress the teeth, and keep them to engine, should be made of iron, with flanches meet as seldom as possible. their proper figure. it the ends to screw them together, with lead 8. The strength of every part of the ma 10. When any motion is to be long con-between, or else of wood; for lead pipes chine ought to be made proportional to, the tinued, contrive the power to move or act al-will bulge out at every stroke of the engine, stress it is to bear; and, therefore, let every ways one way, if it can be done. For this and burst; but pipes next a jet must be lead. lever be made so much stronger, as its length is better and easier performed than when the Pipes should not turn off at an angle, but graand the weight it is to support is greater. motion is interrupted, and the power is forced lually in a curve; pipes of elm will last And let its strength diminish proportionally to move, first one way and then another, be- weaty or thirty years in the ground; but from the fulcrum, or point, where the great-cause every new change of motion requires hey must be laid so deep that the frost may est stress is, to each end. The axles of a new additional force to effect it. Besides, not reach them, or else the water must be let wheels and pullies must be so much stronger, a body in motion cannot suddenly receive a out, otherwise the frost will split them. as they are to bear greater weight. The contrary motion, without great violence; and teeth of wheels, and the wheels themselves, the moving any part of the machine contrary which act with greater force, must be pro- ways by turns, with sudden jerks, tends only portionally stronger; and in any combina- to shake the machine to pieces. tion of wheels and axles, make their strength 11. In a machine that moves always one diminish gradually from the weight to the way, endeavor to have the motion uniform. power, so that the strength of every part be 12. But when the nature of the thing re- Water should not be driven through pipes reciprocally as the velocity it has. The quires that a motion is to be suddenly com- faster than four feet per second, by reason of strength of ropes must be according to their municated to a body, or suddenly stopped, to the friction of the tubes. Nor should it be tension, and that is as the squares of their prevent any damage or violence to the en- much wire-drawn, that is, squeezed through diameters. And, in general, whatever parts gine by a sudden jolt, let the force act against smaller pipes; for that creates a resistance, a machine is composed of, the strength of some spring, or beam of wood, which may as the water-way is less in narrow pipes. every particular part of it must be adjusted supply the place of a spring. The thickness of any pipe must be as the diameter of the bore, and also as the depth rom the spring. For a lead pipe of 6 inches bore, and 60 or 70 feet high, the thickness must be half an inch; and in wooden pipes, 2 inches. And in pump work, where water is conto the stress upon it. Therefore, in square 13. In regard to the size of the machine,veyed through pipe to higher places, the beams, the cubes of the diameters must be let it be made as large as it can convenient- bores of the pipes should not be made too made proportional to the stress they bear. ly. The greater the machine, the exacter it straight upwards, for the straighter they are And let no part be stronger or bigger than is will work, and perform all its motions the near the top, the less water will be dis. necessary for the stress upon it; not only for better. For there will always be some er- charged; nor should the pipe that brings the the ease and well-going of the machine, but rors in the making, as well as in the mate- water into the pump be too straight, for the for the diminishing the friction. For all su- rials, and, consequently, in the working of same reason. The wider these are, the easier perfluous matter, in any part of it, is nothing the machine. The resistance of the medium the pump works. but a dead weight upon the machine, and in some machines has a sensible effect. But When pipes are wind bound, that is, when serves for nothing but to clog its motion. all these mechanical errors bear a less pro-air is lodged in them that the water can hard. And he is by no means a perfect mechanic, portion to the motion of the machine in ly pass, it must be discharged thus: Going that does not only adjust the strength to the great machines than in little ones, being near- from the spring till you come to the first stress, but also contrive all the parts to last ly reciprocally as their diameters, supposing rising of the ground, dig it open till the pipe equally well, that the whole machine may fail they are made of the same matter, and with be laid bare; then, with a nail driven into it together. the same accuracy, and are equally well fin. at the highest part, or rather a little beyond, 9. To avoid friction as much as possible, ished. Therefore, in a small machine, they make a hole in the top, and all the air will the machine ought not to have any unnecesare more sensible, but in a great one almost blow out at the hole, and when the water sary motions, or useless parts; for a multi- vanish. Therefore, great machines will an- comes, batter up the hole again. Do the plicity of parts, by their weight and motion, swer better than smaller, in all respects ex-same at every eminence, and all the air will increase the friction. The diameter of the cept in strength; for the greater the machine be discharged. If the water runs fast through wheels and pullies ought to be large, and the the weaker it is, and less able to resist any the pipes, the air will be beyond the emi. diameters of the arbors or spindles they run violence. nence; but stopping the water, the air will on as small as can be consistent with their 14. For engines that go by water, it is ne-ascend to the highest par. If air be driven strength. All ropes and cords must be as cessary to measure the velocity and force of in, at first, along with the water, the nail-hole pliable as possible, and for that end are rub..he water. To get the velocity, drop in pieces mus: he left open, or a cock placed there to $81,939 40, being ninety-five cents for each of those persons, and equal to 28 cents for every Through the attention of the comptroller of inhabitant. Thus, while the state was distrithe following highly interesting statistics. It to 28 cents for each person in it, the ordinary public accounts, we have been furnished with buting for the benefit of schools a sum equal would be both gratifying and useful, would expenses of the government required of them some one or more individuals in each state fur- only a ratio of contribution less than 6 cents nish similar tables. There certainly can be no and 3 mills. great difficulty in obtaining them, and the labor that they might cost would be more than com- LIME NECESSARY FOR WHEAT. It is an opipensated by the information they would afford. nion very generally acquiesced in, that wheat Statistics of Connecticut for the year 1832. will not succeed on lands that are entirely desThe following is a brief abstract of the vari-titute of this earth. In most agricultural disous subjects of taxation, as returned by the as-of lime is in various ways carried upon the sessors, for March, 1832: tricts that are not calcareous, a small quantity open occasionally. Sometimes a small lead-tism which leads the people to take a deep in-amount of interest distributed for that year was en pipe is placed over the other, communi- terest in the affairs of their government. cating with it in several places, in which is a cock at top, to open upon occasion. 16. When any work is to be performed by a water-wheel moved by the water running under it, and striking the paddles or laddle boards, (fig. 3,) the channel it moves in ought to be something wider than the hole of the adjutage, and so close to the floats on every side, as to let little or no water pass; and when past the wheel, to open a little, that the water may spread. It is of no advantage to have a great number of floats or paddles, for those past the perpendicular are resisted by the back water, and those before it are struck obliquely. The greatest effect that such a wheel can perform, in communicating any motion, is when the paddles of the wheel move with the velocity of the water; in which case, the force upon the paddles is only, supposing the absolute force of the water against the paddles, when the wheel stands still, to be 1. So that the utmost motion which the wheel can generate, is but of that which the force of the water against the paddles at rest would produce. This is when the wheel is at the best; but, oftentimes, far less is done. Machines to raise water, when well made, seldom lose less than the computed quantity of water to be raised. The best contrived engine is scarce part better than the worst contrived engine, when they are equally well executed. A man with the best water engine cannot raise above one hogshead of water in a minute, 10 feet high, to work all day. ||2,622,676 acres of land 1,572 mills 283 distilleries 1 ferry Silver plate 5,196 riding carriages Bank stocks, state banks Assessments Polls $21,948,740 soil by bones, shells, emptyings of white-wash tubs, &c. Those farmers who use leached 50,782,455 843,511 ashes, lime their soil with the lime in the ash146,784 es. We give the following from “ Anderson's Recreations," a work highly esteemed in Eu 54,052 1,637,149 rope : 200 culture, often dressed with animal and vegeta1,290,694 ble manures, and was of course endowed with a 3,347,667 considerable degree of fertility; but being full 333,657 of weeds, it was subjected to a thorough sum 10,614 mer fallow in order to get rid of these, and bring 238,797 it to a proper tilth in other respects; and as 174,843 lime is found to be an active manure in that dis3,143,736 trict, it had a moderate dressing of lime put 17,880 upon it, and some dung at the same time. The 53,642 whole field was sown with wheat at the proper 157,362 season, which sprang up equally thick on eve2,087,976 ry part of it. For some time no difference was $88,592,388 Of receipts and disbursements. per cents. 17. When a weight is to be raised with a given corporeal power, by means of the wheel and axle, so that the weight may receive the greatest motion possible in a given time, the radius of the wheel and axle, and Avails of State Prison the weight to be raised, ought to be so ad-Dividend of bank stock owned by justed, that the radius of the axle (EF): the state (fig. 4) may be to the radius of the wheel (AB) as the power (P) to the weight to be raised (W): or, which comes to the same thing, the velocity gained by the power in descending must be of the velocity which would be gained by gravity in the same time. : This only holds good when the power is a heavy body, as well as the weight; but does not take place when the power is some immaterial active force, such as that of an elastic medium, the strength of a spring, &c., whose weight is inconsiderable. 18. These principles, also, are very useful and necessary to be known, where water-works are concerned. The pressure of the atmosphere upon a square inch is 14.7 lbs. avoird. at a medium. The weight of a column of water, equal to the weight of the atmosphere, is 114 yards, A cubic foot of water weighs 62 lbs. avoir. and contains 6.128 ale gallons. An ale gallon of water contains 282 inches, and weighs 10.2 lbs. avoird. tun avoird., at 63 gallons the hogshead. A cylinder of water a yard high, and d inches in diameter, contains dd ale gal. lons, and weighs da pounds avoird. Fines and miscellaneous receipts Viz. For ordinary expenses of gov The disbursements were— ernment For public buildings and institu tions 17,679 perceivable in the appearance of the crop over 147,683 the whole; by and by it was observed that the 689,315 wheat on a small portion of the field, which by accident had no lime put upon it, became pale and sickly. While the crop in other parts of the field advanced luxuriantly, it dwindled in this particular patch more and more, till towards the beginning of May the whole had died quite out, and not one stalk of wheat was to be found upon it, though the weeds in consequence of the richness of the soil at that time grew there with extreme luxuriance. Perhaps the proportion of calcareous matter did not in this case amount to more than one-thousandth part of the whole, yet the qualities of this soil were thereby totally altered, inasmuch that though before the application of that dressing the soil was incapable of producing wheat at all, it was found at all times after that period well adapted for the raising of that crop. Nature had formed many soils with a similar proportion of calcareous matter, blended imperceptibly in them over large districts of land. 71,626 2,817 25,670 7,448 37,984 60,852 10,774 80,302 Notes on Mildew, from a Lecture on that Subject, by Professor Lindley, delivered at the Horticultural Society's Meeting Room, on the 24th of April. By J. W. L. [From Loudon's Gardener's Magazine.] Of the expenses of government. The population of the state by the last census was 297,711, and the ordinary expense of the government was $60,852; being a proporeach inhabitant. But the state, during this tionate expense of twenty cents and a half for time, received $28,053 interest on her three per cent. stock and dividends on bank stock; did not intend, on the present occasion, to Dr. Lindley began by stating that he $12,446 from the state prison, forfeitures, fines, &c. and $2,817 for taxes on bank stock owned give a regular series of lectures, as that plan by non-residents; all amounting to $42,316; required his hearers to attend the whole which being deducted from the ordinary expen course, which very few individuals had leises of government, left the sum of $18,536 to sure to do. He, therefore, now proposed be paid from direct taxes. to take a different subject for every lecture, first subject was mildew. and to make each complete in itself. His tribution by each inhabitant of the state of less A tun of water, ale measure, weighs 1.1than three tenths of a mill on each dollar of valu- Every horticulturist has heard of mildew; ation and assessment returned by the assessor. and, though it is often confounded with Of the School Fund. blight, honey-dew, &c., the destructive fungi The whole capital of this fund, productive which constitute the real mildew, and the and unproductive, was reported by the commis ravages they occasion, are unfortunately but sioner in 1832, to be $1,902,957 87. The in-too familiar to every one accustomed to either terest arising from it is irrevocably dedicated a garden or a field. Notwithstanding this, STATISTICS OF CONNECTICUT.-The follow-by the constitution to the support of primary even the most eminent horticulturists know ing article, from the Hartford Times, shows schools, and by law is apportioned to them, acthat the people of Connecticut must have pret- and sixteen years of age belonging to the rescording to the ratio of persons between four comparatively little either of the nature of this pest, or of its cure. One most importy easy times. This freedom from taxation pective school societies. The whole number tant error exists respecting it, and this is the does not however always increase that patrio- of those persons in 1832 was 86,252; and the belief, common among gardeners and agricul turists, that one kind of mildew will infect sæ Pers. is another kind, which also attacks interior of the plant, and bursting forth when several kinds of plants: but this can never rose trees. The fungus called Acrosporium ripe. Corn is also attacked by a species of be the case; each tribe of plants has a mil- monilioides consists of a number of globules, Puccinia, a very fatal kind of fungus, which dew peculiar to itself, which cannot, under any circumstances, affect plants of a different kind. Mildew generally appears on the leaves or stems of plants in the form of red, white, or black spots, as a number of minute projections, as a frosty incrustation, or as a brownish powder; in every case spreading, more or less rapidly, according to its kind, attached to each other, which, when magni- always appears divided into cells. Puccinia Graminis, which attacks corn, forms in the interior of the stalk, and, when ripe, bursts forth in clusters, like bunches of grapes, of a dark brown color. Puccinia Rosa Grev.. a bunch of grapes; and it is thus called from appears on the leaves of rose trees, in little a fancied resemblance between that fruit and brown tufts, which, when opened and magits clusters of little globular seeds and seed-nified, are found divided into extremely mi vessels. The bean and pea have a super-nute cells. A correspondent of this maga ficial mildew, (Uredo Fabæ Pers.) which zine mentions that his celery was infected The fungi, commonly called mildew, are Aspergillus. The superficial mildew which divided into three classes: 1. Those which infects the onion, and is very fatal to that grow, or rather lie, on the surface of leaves, plant, is called Botrytis. Its name signifies and which, perhaps, do not derive any nutriment from the plant; 2. Those which are formed in the interior of the stem or leaf, and protrude themselves from it when ripe and, 3. Those which only attack the roots. All are extremely simple in their organization, and very minute in their forms; they seldom appear but in autumn, except in forcing-houses. The first class, or mildew composed of those fungi that live on the surface of leaves, injure a plant by preventing its respiration, but do not appear to draw any nourishment from it. One of the most common of the fungi which attack the common cabbage is 00 4000. with ferruginous spots, occasioned, no doubt, by the Puccinia Heraclei Grev.; and ano. ther correspondent, Mr. Robert Errington, gives a detailed account of the manner in which his celery was attacked by the same disease, and of the means which he adopted for its cure. He describes his celery as having the appearance of having been scorched by fire. He says he dug up the spreads along their leaves, like white roots infected plants, and buried them, but this curiously interlaced. From these roots spring only seemed to increase the evil; and he a number of branch-like shoots, each bear-tried several other remedies, but without, ing a ball-like head, or brown berry, which, any permanent success. when ripe, bursts, and discharges seed. [To be continued.] The second class of fungi, viz. those which spring from the interior of leaves, and CANAL TOLLS.-It is very gratifying to find stems, are by far the most fatal. These our flourishing state making such handsome Cylindrosporium concentricum Grev. These fungi generally appear in a sort of bag, or monthly summings up, as the following, from very destructive fungi have the appearance case, which is supposed to be formed of the the Albany Argus. Canal. 1833. 1832. of small white patches, or specks, of frosty cuticle of the affected leaf. The oak is at- The canal tolls received in the month of July incrustation, which, when magnified, are tacked by a species of fungus, Ecidium, dif-amount to the sum of $147,899-exceeding, by found to consist of a number of small cylin-ferent varieties of which are found on many $42,282 02, the sum collected in the corres. ders, lying end to end, or across each other. kinds of forest trees. The Ecidium Pini, ponding month last year. The following is a These cylinders are all filled with seed, and found on pine trees, has, when magnified, comparison of the tolls for July on all the caburst when it is ripe, scattering it in every the appearance of a number of nine-pins. nals of the state, for 1832 and 1833, to wit: direction; wherever it falls upon the leaf it When ripe, the cuticle which covers the takes root, and thus the fungus spreads rapid- fungus bursts, and emits a powder of a bright Erie,.. ly. The superficial mildew which attacks orange color, which is the seed. A mildew Champlain,.. rose trees and many other flowering shrubs of this kind, which infects corn, is highly in- Cayuga & Seneca, is a kind of Uredo. This name, derived jurious to the farmer. It is vulgarly called from uro, Lat., to burn or scorch, is applied the pepper brand; and, when corn is attackto those occasional discolorations of the sur-ed by it, it gradually consumes the substance faces of plants which were formerly attribut-of the grain, leaving in its stead only a dark ed to blights, or injuries from the atmosphere, powder, which has a very offensive smell. and which have the appearance of a brown This fungus is found only on barley, and in powder. Uredo effusa Grev. generally shows this respect differs from the Uredo Segetum, Oswego,... Increase since 1832. $125,488 04 $91,747 57 $33,740-47 17,293 94 11,112 23 6,181.71 2,084 63 1,890 03 .194 60 3,032 72 1,867 48 2,165 24 $117,899 33 $106,617 31 $42,282 02 The receipts for tolls to the close of July are greater, by one hundred thousand five hundred than they were for the same period last year. and twenty-two dollars and ninety-eight cents, Some estimate of the great increase of business npon the canals may be formed from the fact, or smut, which is destructive not only of bar- that the diminution in the rates of toll, operatley, but also of wheat and oats. The Uredo ing upon the articles which were transported Segetum, or smut, has been the subject of upon the canals in 1832, would probably dimany interesting experiments by Mr. Bauer, minish the aggregate amount of tolls $150,000, of Kew, whose discoveries will, no doubt, for the whole season. throw very considerable light upon the sub. of toll, such has been the increase of articles transported, that in three months and eight ject. It not only destroys the grain, which it days the aggregate amount exceeds that of the itself on the under sides of the leaves of the converts into a kind of jelly, but it attacks corresponding months of last year, by the sum Rosacea, and spreads rapidly. Uredo Re."the leaves and stems, always forming in the of more than one hundred thousand dollars. At the diminished rates NEW-Y KAMUKICAN. AUGUST 31, SEPTEMBER 2, 3, 4, 5, 6-1833. LITERARY NOTICES. that range the forest, or bound through the lawns.lently rounded, and polished, placed with the utmost In regard to the boundless regions that lie beyond regularity in rows, crossing each other like a kind him in the firmament, and the bodies that roli of lattice.work, and forming the most admirable there in magnificent grandeur, he has the most con- piece of mechanism which the eye can contemplate. fused and inaccurate ideas; and he seldom troubles The small dust that covers the wings of moths and On the IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIETY BY THE DIFFU-himself with inquiries in relation to such subjects. butterflies he perceives to consist of an infinite multiSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE, &c. &c., by THOMAS Whether the stars be great or small, whether they tude of feathers of various forms, not much unlike DICK, LL. D.-forming Vol. LIX. of Harpers' Fa. be near us or at a distance, or whether they move or the feathers of birds, and adorned with the most mily Library, New-York. In the preface to this stand still, is to him a matter of trivial importance. bright and vivid colors. In an animal so small that If the sun give him light by day, and the moon by the naked eye can searcely distinguish it as a visible book we learn that it was prepared for the press night, and the clouds distil their watery treasuses point, he perceives a head, mouth, eyes, legs, joints, nearly twenty years ago, but, that other literary un- upon his parched fields, he is contented, and leaves bristles, hair, and other animal par's and functions, dertakings of the author prevented its appearance all such inquiries and investigations to those who as nicely formed and adjusted, and endowed with as then. If it had been published at that time-anterior, the canopy of heaven as merely a ceiling to our animals. In the tail of a small fish, or the foot of a have little else to engage their attention. He views much vivacity, agility, and intelligence, as the larger as it was in a great degree, to the various admirable earthly habitation, and the starry orbs as only so frog, he can perceive the variegated branchings of works which, in every department of knowledge, many luminous studs or tapers to diversify its aspect, the veine and arteries, and the blood circulating and adapted to all understandings, are now daily put and to afford a glimmering light to the benighted through them with amazing velocity. In a drop ot traveller. Of the discoveries which have been made stagnant water he perceives thousands of living be. forth under the impulse of an enlightened and gene in the physical sciences in ages past, of the wondersings, of various shapes and sizes, beautifully formed, rous zeal for the diffusion of knowle 'ge--it of creation which they have unfolded to view, of the and swimming with wanton vivacity like fishes in the would have been pronounced, we do not hesitate to instruments which have been invented for exploring midst of the ocean. In short, by this instrument he say, one of the most original as well as valuable and the universe, and of the improvements which are perceives that the whole earth is full of animation, attractive volumes ever written. As it is, losing now going forward in every department of sci-and that there is not a single tree, plant, or flower, ence and art, and the prospects they are opening to and scarcely a drop of water, that is not teeming with only in part the claim of originality, it retains its our view, he is almost as entirely ignorant as it he life, and peopled with its peculiar inhabitants. He value and usefulness undiminished. All the im.had been fixed under the frozen pole, or chained to thus enters, as it were, into a new world, invisible to provements and discoveries in modern science, which the surface of a distant planet. He considers learn. other eyes, where every object in the animal, vegetacould serve as illustrations of the main design, haveing as consisting chiefly in the knowledge of gram-ble, and mineral kingdoms presents a new and interest. mar, Greek and Latin; and philosophy and astrono. ing aspect, and unfolds beauties, harmonies, con. been embodied in the work as it now appears, and my as the arts of telling fortunes and predicting the||trasts, and exquisite contrivances, altogether inconwe cordially recommend it to all readers. It is writ. state of the weather; and experimental chymistry, ceivable by the ignorant and unreflecting mind. ten in so good a style, the topics, even when border. as allied to the arts of magic and necromancy. He In the invisible atmosphere which surrounds him, ing on abstruse science, are treated so clearly, and has no idea of the manner in which the understand. where other minds discern nothing but an immense ing may be enlightened and expanded, he has no relish blank, he beholds an assemblage of wonders, and a in such popular language--avoiding always the use for intellectual pursuits, and no conception of the striking scene of Divine Wisdom and Omnipotence. of merely technical terms-as to be quite intelligible pleasures they afford; and he sets no value on know. He views this invisible agent not only as a material to every one of ordinary understanding. ledge but in so far as it may tend to increase his riches but as a compound substance-compounded of two and his sensual gratifications. He has no desire for opposite principles, the one the source of flame Knowledge in this country-we cannot help repeating it again and again-is not only important for making improvements in his trade or domestic ar- and animal life, and the other destructive to rangements, and gives no countenance to those use. both, and producing by their different combinations, the immediate advantages in confers upon its pos.ful inventions and public improvements which are de- the most diversified and beneficent effects. He per. sessor-but for the indirect but omnipotent influence vised cy others. He sets himself against evey inno-ceives the atmosphere, as the agent under the Alwhich it must exercise upon our free institutions. vation, whether religious, political, mechanical, or mighty, which produces the germination and growth agricultural, and is determined to abide by the "good of plants, and all the beauties of the vegetable These repose, and must, in the nature of things, old customs" of his forefathers, however irrational or creation-which preserves water in a liquid state repose, for their stability and purity, upon the know-absurd. Were it dependent upon him, the moral -supports fire and flame, and produces animal ledge and virtue, (which, as a general proposition, world would stand still, as the material world was heat, which sustains the clouds, and gives buoyancy may he said always to go hand in hand), of the peo- supposed to do in former times; all useful inventions to the feathered tribes-which is the cause of winds and improvements would cease, existing evils would-the vehicle of smells--the medium of sounds-the ple. An educated people cannot be enslaved. But never he remedied, ignorance and superstition would source of all the pleasures we derive from the har. not only does knowledge tend to preserve freedom, universally prevail, the human mind would be arrest-monies of music-the cause of that universal light but to embellish it. It strips it at once of the con-ed in its progress to perfection, and man would never and splendour which is diffused around us, and of the nection, which its enemies so willingly impute to it, arrive at the true dignity of his intellectual nature. advantages we derive from the morning and evening with vulgar licenee, jacobiniam, sans-culotteism. It Contrasted with this is the following fine descrip.twilight. In short, he contemplates it as the prime compels those who would obtain influence among the tion of the resources and employments of that mind mover in a variety of machines, -as impelling ships across the ocean, blowing our furnaces, grinding our people to respect themselves. It cuts short the as- which seeks to fulfil its high destinies by questioning corn, raising water from the deepest pits, extinguish cendancy of demagogues, who, with the praises of ing fires, setting power-looms in motion, propelling the people always on their lips, insult them on all Sitting at his fireside, during the blasts of winter, steamboats along rivers and canals, raising balloons he can survey the numerous tribes of mankind scat. to the region of the clouds, and performing a thous. agitating questions, by one sided appeals to their pastered over the various climates of the earth, and and other benificent agencies without which our globe sions, and partial and distorted statemente of the entertain himself with views of their manners, cus. would cease to be a habitable world. All which truth. Hence, we say again, that in free America, toms, religion, laws, trade, manufactures, marriage views and contemplations have an evident tendency more even than elsewhere, is the universal diffusion ceremonies, civil and ecclesiastical governments, to enlarge the capacity of the mind, to stimulate ite of knowledge to be aimed at by all lovers of their arts, sciences, cities, towns, and villages, and the faculties, and to produce rational enjoyment. animals peculiar to every region. In his rural Again, the man of knowledge, even when shroud. country. Would that the means and mode of ef. walks he can not only appreciate the beneficence of ed in darkness, and in solitude, where other minds feeting this great object, were as obvious as its im- Nature, and the beauties and harmonies of the vege. could find no enjoyment, can entertain himself with portance. But these will be found-it cannot be table kingdom, in their exterior aspect, but can also the most sublime contemp ations. He can trace the doubted-whenever the public mind shall be resolute. penetrate in the hidden processes which are going on huge globe on which we stand dying through the in the roots, trunks, and leaves of plants and flow. depths of space, carrying along with its vast popu ly turned to the subject. Meanwhile we observeers, and contemplate the numerous vessels through lation, at the rate of sixty thousand miles every with pleasure that Dr. Dick promises a volume upon which the sap is flowing from their roots through the hour, and, by the inclination of its axis, bringing this very topic-the means of diffusing useful know.trunks and branches, the millions of pores through about the alternate succession of summer and winledge among all classes. which their odoriferous effluvia exhale, their fine and ter, spring and harvest. By the aid of his telescope We shal look eagerly for delicate texture, their microscopical beauties, their he can transport himself towards the moon, and surorders, genera, and species, and their uses in the vey the circular plains, the deep caverns, the conical We present some extracts. First, we have this economy of nature. hills, the lofty peaks, the shadows of the hills and picture of a man living in the world without seeking With the help of his microscope, he can enter into vales, and the rugged and romantic mountain scene. to understand aught that is passing around him : a world unknown to the ignorant, and altogether in-ry which diversify the surface of this orb of night. visible to the unassisted eye. In every plant and By the help of the same inatrument he can range His views are chiefly confined to the objects flower which adorn thes field, in every leaf of the through the planetary system, wing his way through immediately around him, and to the daily avoca- forest, in the seeds, prickles, and down of all vegeta- the regiona of space along with the swiftest orbs, tions in which he is employed. His knowledge of bles, he perceives beauties and harmonies, and exqui- and trace many of the physical aspects and revolu society is circumscribed within the limits of his site contrivances, of which, without this instrument, he parish, and his views of the world in which he could have formed no conception. In every scale of dwells are confined within the range of the coun a haddock he perceives a beautiful piece of net-work, try in which he resides, or of the blue hills which admirably contrived and arranged, and in the scale of ekirt his horizon. Or the aspects of the globe in a sole a still more diversified structure, which no other countries of the various tribes with which art could imitate, terminated with pointed spikes, they are peopled-ot the seas and rivers, continents and formed with admirable regularity. Where noth. and islands which diversify the landscape of the ing but a speck of mouldiness appears to the naked earth of the numerous orders of animated beings eye, he beholds a forest of mushrooms with long world. He can wing his flight to the still more dia. which people the ocean, the atmosphere, and the stalks, and with leaves and blossoms distinctly visitant regions of the universe, leaving the sun and all land,of the revolutions of nations, and the eventsle. In the eyes of a common fly, where others can his planets behind him, till they appear like a scaredwhich have taken place in the history of the world, see only too small protuberances, he perceives seve.ly discernible speck in creation, and contemplate he has almost as little conception as the animals ral thousands of beautiful transparent globes, excel thousands and millions of stara and starry systems, it. the Universe. tions which have a relation to distant worlda. He can transport himsel to the planet Saturn, and be. hold a stupendous ring, 600,000 miles in circumfer ence, revolving in majestic grandeur every ten hours around a globe nine hundred times larger than the earth, while seven moons, larger than ours, along with an innumerable host of stars, display their radiance, to adorn the firmament of that magnificent |