FRANCIS PARKMAN (1823-1893) The early life of Parkman was much like Lowell's: he was born at Boston, the son of a minister, he completed his course at Harvard and entered upon the study of law, and he soon turned from it into occupations to him more congenial. A love of out-of-doors life seems to have directed him to his life-work. Even as a college student he had delighted in making excursions into the wilderness, especially to historic places like the northern battle-fields of the Revolution. Later he explored the historic places of New York and Pennsylvania, visiting all the remnants of Indian tribes, and collecting all possible material that might later be of value, and in one of his excursions he penetrated as far west as St. Louis. In 1846 he made his wellknown trip among the Indian tribes of the north-west, lived for a whole summer in Indian lodges, and on his return published an account of his adventures in the Knickerbocker Magazine, 1847, later collecting the papers for his first book: The California and Oregon Trail, 1849. He followed it in 1851 with The Conspiracy of Pontiac, and then began systematically upon his study of the period to which he was to devote his life, the period of the struggle of France and England for North America. The rest of Parkman's biography is chiefly a record of his heroic struggles with impaired eyesight and ill health, a list of his books, and an account of his excursions to regions that were to figure in his narrative. At times be found it impossible even to look at a newspaper. and for a long period he devoted himself solely to horticulture. There were years when he could do only a few moments of work each day, but with a tenacity and a courage rarely paralleled in the history of literature he kept on and the year before his death completed the work he had set out to do.- a history of France in America in seven volumes. As a historian he ranks high. To accuracy and fullness of material he added a narrative style as compelling and as fascinating as the best of Cooper's. His material is picturesque in the extreme: chapter after chapter read like historical romance. He added to his narrative power another quality he worked more fully from first-hand observation than it will ever be possible to do again. The Indian that he studied so carefully in his remote fastnesses was the primitive Indian of the French wars, and to-day he has disappeared forever. : THE CONSPIRACY OF PONTIAC CHAPTER VIII 1763 INDIAN PREPARATION I interrupt the progress of the narrative to glance for a moment at the Indians in their military capacity, and observe how 10 far they were qualified to prosecute the formidable war into which they were about to plunge. separate communities, was too feeble to deserve the name. There were, it is true, chiefs whose office was in a manner hereditary but their authority was wholly of a 5 moral nature, and enforced by no compulsory law. Their province was to advise, and not to command. Their influence, such as it was, is chiefly to be ascribed to the principle of hero-worship, natural to the Indian character, and to the reverence for age, which belongs to a state of society where a patriarchal element largely prevails. It was their office to declare war and make peace; but when war was declared, they had no power to carry the declaration into effect. The warriors fought if they chose to do so; but if, on the contrary, they preferred to remain quiet, no man could force them to raise the hatchet. The war-chief, whose part it was to lead them to battle, was a mere partisan, whom his bravery and exploits had led to distinction. If he thought A people living chiefly by the chase, and therefore, of necessity, thinly and widely 15 scattered; divided into numerous tribes. held together by no strong principles of cohesion, and with no central government to combine their strength, could act with little efficiency against such an enemy as 20 was now opposed to them. Loose and disjointed as a whole, the government even of individual tribes, and of their smallest proper, he sang his war-song and danced his war-dance; and as many of the young men as were disposed to follow him, gathered around and enlisted themselves under him. Over these volunteers he had no legal authority, and they could desert him. at any moment, with no other penalty than disgrace. When several war parties, of different bands or tribes, were united in a common enterprise, their chiefs elected to a leader, who was nominally to command the whole; but unless this leader was a man of uncommon reputation and ability, his commands were disregarded, and his authority was a cipher. Among his fol- 15 lowers, every latent element of discord, pride, jealousy, and ancient half-smothered feuds, were ready at any moment to break out, and tear the whole asunder. warriors would often desert in bodies; and 20 many an Indian army, before reaching the enemy's country, has been known to dwindle away until it was reduced to a mere scalping party. His To twist a rope of sand would be as 25 easy a task as to form a permanent and effective army of such materials. The wild love of freedom, and impatience of all control, which mark the Indian race, render them utterly intolerant of military 30 discipline. Partly from their individual character, and partly from this absence of subordination, spring results highly unfavorable to continued and extended military operations. Indian warriors, when 35 acting in large masses, are to the last degree wayward, capricious, and unstable; infirm of purpose as a mob of children, and devoid of providence and foresight. To provide supplies for a campaign forms 40 no part of their system. Hence the blow must be struck at once, or not struck at all; and to postpone victory is to insure defeat. It is when acting in small, detached parties, that the Indian warrior puts forth 45 his energies, and displays his admirable address, endurance, and intrepidity. It is then that he becomes a truly formidable enemy. Fired with the hope of winning scalps, he is stanch as a bloodhound. No50 hardship can divert him from his purpose, and no danger subdue his patient and cautious courage. From their inveterate passion for war, the Indians are always prompt enough to 55 engage in it; and on the present occasion, the prevailing irritation gave ample assurance that they would not remain idle. While there was little risk that they would capture any strong and well-defended fort, or carry any important position, there was, on the other hand, every reason to apprehend wide-spread havoc, and a destructive war of detail. That the war might be carried on with effect, it was the part of the Indian leaders to work upon the passions of their people, and keep alive their irritation; to whet their native appetite for blood and glory, and cheer them on to the attack; to guard against all that might quench their ardor, or cool their fierceness; to avoid pitched battles; never to fight except under advantage; and to avail themselves of all the aid which craft and treachery could afford. The very circumstances which unfitted the Indians for continued and concentrated attack were, in another view, highly advantageous, by preventing the enemy from assailing them with vital effect. It was no easy task to penetrate tangled woods in search of a foe, alert and active as a lynx, who would seldom stand and fight, whose deadly shot and triumphant whoop were the first and often the last tokens of his presence, and who, at the approach of a hostile force, would vanish into the black recesses of forests and pine swamps, only to renew his attacks with unabated ardor. There were no forts to capture, no magazines to destroy, and little property to seize upon. No warfare could be more perilous and harassing in its prosecution, or less satisfactory in its results. The English colonies at this time were but ill-fitted to bear the brunt of the impending war. The army which had conquered Canada was broken up and dissolved; the provincials were disbanded, and most of the regulars sent home. A few fragments of regiments, miserably wasted by war and sickness, had just arrived from the West Indies; and of these, several were already ordered to England, to be disbanded. There remained barely troops enough to furnish feeble garrisons for the various forts on the frontier and in the Indian country. At the head of this dilapidated army was Sir Jeffrey Amherst, who had achieved the reduction of Canada, and clinched the nail which Wolfe had driven. In some respects he was wellfitted for the emergency; but, on the other hand, he held the Indians in supreme contempt, and his arbitrary treatment of them and total want of every quality of con FRANCIS PARKMAN ciliation where they were concerned, had war. While the war was on the eve of breaking out, an event occurred which had afterwards an important effect upon its progress, the signing of the treaty of peace at Paris, on the tenth of February, 1763. By this treaty France resigned her claims to the territories east of the Missis- 10 sippi, and that great river now became the western boundary of the British colonial possessions. In portioning out her new acquisitions into separate governments, England left the valley of the Ohio and 15 the adjacent regions as an Indian domain, and by the proclamation of the seventh of October following, the intrusion of settlers upon these lands was strictly prohibited. Could these just and necessary 20 measures have been sooner adopted, it is probable that the Indian war might have been prevented, or, at all events, rendered less general and violent, for the treaty would have made it apparent that 25 the French could never repossess themselves of Canada, and would have proved the futility of every hope which the Indians entertained of assistance from that quarter, while, at the same time, the royal 30 proclamation would have tended to tranquilize their minds, by removing the chief cause of irritation. But the remedy came too late, and served only to inflame the evil. While the sovereigns of France, 35 England, and Spain, were signing the treaty at Paris, countless Indian warriors in the American forests were singing the warsong, and whetting their scalping knives. Throughout the western wilderness, in 40 a hundred camps and villages, were celebrated the savage rites of war. riors, women, and children were alike Wareager and excited; magicians consulted their oracles, and prepared charms to in- 45 sure success; while the war-chief, his body painted black from head to foot, concealed himself in the solitude of rocks and caverns, or the dark recesses of the forest. Here, fasting and praying, he calls day and night upon the Great Spirit, consulting his dreams, to draw from them auguries of good or evil; and if, perchance, a vision of the great war-eagle seems to hover over him with expanded 55 wings, he exults in the full conviction of triumph. When a few days have elapsed, he emerges from his retreat, and the peo so 50 ple discover him descending from the woods, and approaching their camp, black as a demon of war, and shrunken with 5 listen to his wild harangue. He calls fasting and vigil. They flock around and slaughtered relatives; he assures them that on them to avenge the blood of their the Great Spirit is on their side, and cries they disperse to their wigwams, to that victory is certain. With exulting array themselves in the savage decorations of the war-dress. An old man now passes through the camp, and invites the chief. They gather from all quarters to warriors to a feast in the name of the his wigwam, where they find him seated, no longer covered with black, but adorned with the startling and fantastic blazonry feast pledge themselves, by so doing, to of the war-paint. Those who join in the follow him against the enemy. The guests seat themselves on the ground, in a circle around the wigwam, and the flesh fore them, while the chief, though goaded of dogs is placed in wooden dishes beby the pangs of his long, unbroken fast, sits smoking his pipe with unmoved countenance, and takes no part in the feast. Night has now closed in; and the rough clearing is illumined by the blaze of fires and burning pine-knots, casting their deep red glare upon the dusky boughs of multitude who, fluttering with feathers the surrounding forest, and upon the wild and bedaubed with paint, have gathered for the celebration of the war-dance. painted post is driven into the ground, and A The chief leaps into the vacant space, the crowd form a wide circle around it. brandishing his hatchet as if rushing upon an enemy, and, in a loud, vehement tone, chants his own exploits and those of his describes, yelling the war whoop, throwancestors, enacting the deeds which he ing himself into all the postures of actual fight, striking the post as if it were an enemy, and tearing the scalp from rior after warrior follows his example, the head of the imaginary victim. Waruntil the whole assembly, as if fired with sudden frenzy, rush together into the ring, leaping, stamping, and whooping, fire-light, hacking and stabbing the air, and brandishing knives and hatchets in the breaking at intervals into a burst of ferocious yells, which sounds for miles away over the lonely, midnight forest. 5 In the morning, the warriors prepare to depart. They leave the camp in single file, still decorated with all their finery of paint, feathers, and scalp-locks; and, as they enter the woods, the chief fires his gun, the warrior behind follows his example, and the discharges pass in slow succession from front to rear, the salute concluding with a general whoop. They encamp at no great distance from the vil- 10 lage, and divest themselves of their much prized ornaments, which are carried back by the women, who have followed them for this purpose. The warriors pursue their journey, clad in the rough attire of hard 15 service, and move silently and stealthily through the forest towards the hapless garrison, or defenseless settlement, which they have marked as their prey. The woods were now filled with war- 20 parties such as this, and soon the first tokens of the approaching tempest began to alarm the unhappy settlers of the frontier. At first, some trader or hunter, weak and emaciated, would come in from 25 the forest, and relate that his companions had been butchered in the Indian villages, and that he alone had escaped. Next succeeded vague and uncertain rumors of forts attacked and garrisons 30 slaughtered; and soon after, a report gained ground that every post throughout the Indian country had been taken, and every soldier killed. Close upon these tidings came the enemy himself. The 35 Indian war-parties broke out of the woods like gangs of wolves, murdering, burning, and laying waste: while hundreds of terror-stricken families, abandoning their homes, fled for refuge towards the older 40 settlements, and all was misery and ruin. arations were complete. His light-footed messengers, with their wampum belts and gifts of tobacco, visited many a lonely hunting camp in the gloom of the northern woods, and called chiefs and warriors to attend the general meeting. The appointed spot was on the banks of the little River Ecorces, not far from Detroit. Thither went Pontiac himself, with his squaws and his children. Band after band came straggling in from every side, until the meadow was thickly dotted with their frail wigwams. Here were idle warriors smoking and laughing in groups, or beguiling the lazy hours with gambling, feasting, or doubtful stories of their own martial exploits. Here were youthful gallants, be-dizened with all the foppery of beads, feathers, and hawks' bells, but held as yet in light esteem since they had slain no enemy, and taken no scalp. Here too were young damsels, radiant with bear's oil, ruddy with vermilion, and versed in all the arts of forest coquetry; shriveled hags. with limbs of wire, and voices of screech-owls; and troops of naked children, with small, black, mischievous eyes, roaming along the outskirts of the woods. The great Roman historian observes of the ancient Germans, that when summoned to a public meeting. they would lag behind the appointed time in order to show their independence. The remark holds true, and perhaps with great emphasis, of the American Indians; and thus it happened, that several days elapsed before the assembly was complete. In such a motley concourse of barbarians, where different bands and different tribes were mustered on one common camp ground, it would need all the art of a prudent leader to prevent their dormant jealousies from starting into open strife. No people are more prompt to quarrel, and none more prone, in the fierce excitement of the present, to forget the purpose of the future; yet, through good fortune, or the wisdom of Pontiac, no rupture occurred; 50 and at length the last loiterer appeared, and farther delay was needless. Passing over, for the present, this portion of the war. we will penetrate at once into the heart of the Indian country, and observe those passages of the conflict 45 which took place under the auspices of Pontiac himself, the siege of Detroit, and the capture of the interior posts and garrisons. CHAPTER IX 1763 THE COUNCIL AT THE RIVER ECORCES To begin the war was reserved by Pontiac as his own peculiar privilege. With the first opening of spring his prep The council took place on the twentyseventh of April. On that morning, several old men, the heralds of the camp, 55 passed to and fro among the lodges, calling to the warriors, in a loud voice, to attend the meeting. In accordance with the summons, they issued from their cabins: the tall, naked figures of the wild Ojibways, with quivers slung at their backs, and light war-clubs resting in the hollow of their arms; Ottawas, wrapped close in their gaudy blankets; Wyandots, fluttering in painted shirts, their heads adorned with feathers, and their leggins garnished with bells. All were soon seated in a, wide circle upon the grass, row within row, a n grave and silent assembly. Each savage countenance seemed carved in wood, and none could have detected the ferocious passions hidden beneath that immovable mask. Pipes with ornamented stems were 15 lighted, and passed from hand to hand. Then Pontiac rose, and walked forward into the midst of the council. According to Canadian tradition, he was not above the middle height, though his mus- 20 cular figure was cast in a mold of remarkable symmetry and vigor. His complexion was darker than is usual with his race, and his features, though by no means regular, had a bold and stern expres- 25 sion; while his habitual bearing was imperious and peremptory, like that of a man accustomed to sweep away all opposition by the force of his impetuous will. His ordinary attire was that of the primi- 30 tive savage, a scanty cincture girt about his loins, and his long, black hair flowing loosely at his back; but on occasions like this he was wont to appear as befitted his power and character, and he 35 stood doubtless before the council plumed and painted in the full costume of war. Looking round upon his wild auditors he began to speak, with fierce gesture, and a loud, impassioned voice; and at 40 every pause, deep, guttural ejaculations of assent and approval responded to his words. He inveighed against the arrogance, rapacity, and injustice, of the English, and contrasted them with ceived it from their great father the King of France, in token that he had heard the voice of his red children; that his 5 war canoes would soon sail up the St. sleep was at an end; and that his great Lawrence, to win back Canada, and wreak vengeance on his enemies. The Indians and their French brethren would fight ways fought; they would strike the Engonce more side by side, as they had allish as they had struck them many moons ago, when their great army marched down the Monongahela, and they had shot them in the woods. from their ambush, like a flock of pigeons Having roused in his warlike listeners their native thirst for blood and vengeance, he next addressed himself to their Its precise origin is not easy to detersuperstition, and told the following tale. mine. It is possible that the Delaware prophet, mentioned in a former chapter. may have had some part in it; or it tiac's heated imagination, during his might have been the offspring of Ponperiod of fasting and dreaming. That he deliberately invented it for the sake of the effect it would produce, is the last dently proceeds from the superstitious probable conclusion of all; for it evimind of an Indian, brooding upon the evil days in which his lot was cast, and turning for relief to the mysterious Author acteristic specimen of the Indian legenof his being. It is, at all events, a chardary tales, and, like many of them bears an allegoric significancy. Yet he who endeavors to interpret an Indian allegory puerile inconsistencies, has undertaken no through all its erratic windings and enviable task. 'A Delaware Indian,' said Pontiac, 'conceived an eager desire to learn wisdom from the Master of Life; but, bethe 45 ing ignorant where to find him, he had recourse to fasting, dreaming, and magical incantations. By these means it was revealed to him, that, by moving forward in reach the abode of the Great Spirit. He a straight, undeviating course, he would told his purpose to no one, and having provided the equipments of a hunter,gun, powder-horn, ammunitions, and 55 out on his errand. For some time he kettle for preparing his food, he set journeyed on in high hope and confidence. On the evening of the eighth day, he stopped by the side of a brook at the edge French, whom they had driven from the soil. He declared that the British commandant had treated him with neglect and contempt; that the soldiers of the garrison had abused the Indians; and that 50 one of them had struck a follower of his own. He represented the danger that would arise from the supremacy of the English. They had expelled the French, and now they only waited for a pretext to turn upon the Indians and destroy them. Then, holding out a broad belt of wampum, he told the council that he had re a |