from verb-stems, with inserted σi (312 a): Xp-σiμo-s useful fr. xpá-oμai to use. —c. vo: dei-vó-s fearful (to be feared) fr. st. de to fear, opel-vó-s (for opeσ-vo-s, 16) mountainous fr. opos (opeσ) mountain.· d. ρο: λαμπρός brilliant fr. λáun-w to shine, poße-pó-s fearful (frightful, or afraid) fr. poßé-w to frighten. —ε. σιο: ἄξιος (= αγ-σιο-s, weighing) worth, worley, fr. yw to weigh.. f. αλεο: θαρσαλέος (33a) courageous fr. θάρσος courage.g. að: puy-ás (-ad) fugitive fr. pevyw (pvy) to flee. These are often used as substantives. Feminine adjectives in ad, d, are chiefly poetic. h. τ (ητ, ωτ): ἀ-γνώς (α-γνω-τ) unknown fr. ἀ- un- and γι-γνώσκω to know, πένης (-ητ) poor fr. πέν-ομαι to be poor. - i. v: ἡδούς pleasant fr. d-oμaι to be pleased.

Derivation of Verbs.

327. The stems of most DENOMINATIVE VERBS end in a, ε, ο, ευ, ιδ, αδ, αν, υν. But these are not always suffixed to the noun-stem: a, e, o, usually belong to the noun-stem (unaltered, or with change of final vowel, 306 c); so, not seldom, does ev; rarely so id, ad, av, vv. In meaning, they are not clearly distinguished from each other.

Thus - a. τιμάω to honor fr. τιμή (τιμα) honor, ἀριστά-ω to breakfast fr. ἄριστον breakfast. — b. φιλέω to love fr. φίλος dear, μαρτυρέω to testify fr. μάρτυς (μαρτυρ) witness. — c. dŋλó-w to manifest fr. dñλo-s manifest, nuió-w to punish fr. (nuía penalty. - d. βασιλεύω to reign fr. βασιλev-s king, àλneú-w to speak truth fr. àλnons (306 f) true.· · ε. ἐλπίζω (δ) to hope fr. Anís (8) hope, ¿λλnvíg-w to speak Greek fr. "EXλny Greek, qıλınπίζω to favor Philip fr. Φίλιππο-s Philip. — f. δικάζω to judge fr. δίκη justice, εργάζομαι to work fr. ἔργο-ν work. —g. χαλεπαίνω to be angry fr. Xaλenó-s hard, angry: thus many verbs from words in uar, as onuaiv-w to signify fr. onμa(7) sign. — h. ò¿úv-w to sharpen fr. ¿¿ú-s sharp, Sapoúv-w to encourage fr. Sápoos courage.-i. There are still other denominatives, some of which keep the noun-stem unchanged, as Sakрú-w to weep fr. δάκρυ (poetic) tear, φυλάσσω (φυλακ) to watch fr. φύλαξ (φυλακ) watchman, some change it more or less, as katalрw (kadap) to purify fг. Kalaрó-s pure, laooow to lessen fr. exáoσwv (cf. 100) less, naλaí-w to wrestle fr. πάλη (παλα) wrestling.

j. A few verbs in aw, law, denote an AFFECTION OF THE BODY: épvłp-iáw

to redden fr. pv0pó-s red; a few are DESIDERATIVE: JavaT-άw to desire death fr. Sávaro-s death. Other desideratives are formed in σew: yeλaveiw to desire to laugh fr. yeλá-w to laugh.

Derivation of Adverbs.

328. For adverbs derived from adjectives, see 132: for adverbs in w derived from prepositions, see 132 d: for correlative adverbs from pronoun-stems, see 144: for numeral adverbs, see 147. 150. Adverbs are also formed by the suffixes

a. Sóv (oxytone), mostly poetic (only poetic dá): axe-dóv near, nearly, fr. ἔχομαι (σεχ, σχε) to hold on by, to be close to, ταυρ-η-δόν bull-like fr. Taupo-s bull, ev-dov within fr. èv in. b. dny (paroxytone): xú-dny (pouringly) confusedly fr. xéw (xv) to pour, σñop-á-dŋv scatteredly fr, øreipw

(σπερ) to sou, scatter, συλ-λήβδην comprehensively fr. συλ-λαμβάνω (ληβ) to comprehend. c. τί (oxytone): ὀνομαστί by name fr. ὀνομάζω (δ) to name, Exλnvio-Ti in Greek fr. éλλŋví(w (d) to speak Greek.. d. i or ei (oxytone), used with compounds: -кηрукт-i without herald fr. -кηρUкто-S unheralded, wav-dnμ-el with the whole people fr. τáv-dnμo-s including the whole people.

Composition of Words.

329. The union of one stem with another gives occasion for various euphonic changes.

These are, in general, the same as those occasioned by suffixes, see 306. Thus a vowel is often inserted, most commonly o, - especially where consonants would otherwise be brought together: unrρ-Ó-TOXI-S mother-city fr. unτnp (99) mother and moλ-s (103) city, Kanλ-i-pwvo-s beautiful-voiced fr. (kаλλо-я samе аs) кaλó-s beautiful and own voice. - Final a of the 1st decl. often becomes o: unvo-eidńs moon-shaped fr. μhvn (poetic) moon and eldos appearance (cf. 331 c).

330. The last stem in a compound noun often undergoes some change of ending.

Thus final a usually becomes o, as in kaλλ-í-pwvo-s just given. To consonant-stems o is often added: πρó-xeipo-s (before the hand) at hand (112 ab). Final ματ becomes μον Ο' μο Οι ματο: πολυ-πράγμων (πραγμον) busy fr. Toxu-s many and πpâу-μa(T) affair, àv-úvvuo-s nameless fr. av- unand ovoμa(T) name (cf. 306 f).-a. Abstract substantives which do not end in a, generally take it when used in the last part of an abstract compound: βουλή counsel, πρᾶξις (πράγ-σι-ς) action, but εὐ-βουλία good counsel, eu-pas-ía good success; only after a preposition can they remain unchanged: po-Covλh previous counsel, diá-πpaĝis transaction. — b. Internal change is seen in σw-opwv (-opov) sound-minded, discreet, fr. ow-s (117 b) safe and poetic φρήν (φρεν) mind.

331. Many verbals are seldom or never used except as the last stem in a compound noun.

Thus

-c. Many

-a. Many words denoting the agent, and many adjectives, formed by o (nom. o-s): λoyo-ypápo-s speech-writer, ǎ-ypapo-s unwritten, kаρπоpopo-s fruit-bearing, though -ypad-o-s (writer or written) is never used by b. Some words itself, and oop-ó-s (bearing fr. pép-w) only in late authors. denoting the agent, formed by a (nom. n-s or a-s): кwμ-άрxn-s village-ruler fr. kúμn (306 b) village and -apx-n-s (apx-a) fr. ăpx-w to rule.adjectives of passive or active meaning, formed by eo (nom. ns, 325): -βλαβής unharmed, also unharming, fr. -βλαβ-ης (-εσ) fr. βλάπτω (βλαβ) to harm. But in many compound adjectives final eo of the stem belongs to an included substantive: deka-erns (having) las'ing ten years fr. déкa ten and ἔτος (ετεσ) year. Those in ώδης are contracted from ο-ειδής: ἀνδρὸ wons (for avdp-o-edns) having the appearance or character of a man, manlike, fr. avhp (99) man and eldos (Feideo) appearance.

332. The first part of a compound noun may be made directly from a verb-stem; but such compounds are not very numerous in Attic prose.

Thus μió-duo-s hating the people fr. μioé-w (306 c) to hate and dμo-s people, φθιν-όπωρο-ν late autumn fr. φθίνω to perish and ὀπώρα (330) ακ tumn.a. To the verb-stem they often add σ (before vowels o), cf. 326 b: AVσI-TEλns (paying charges) advantageous fr. λú-w to (loose) defray and τέλος (τελεσ) charge.

333. Indirect Compounds are those derived from words already compounded.

Thus from σTрaт-nyó-s army-leader, general, which is formed DIRECTLY by uniting the stems of στρаTÓ-s (306 b) army and ȧyó-s (poetic) leader, see 309 b. 306 d, come several indirect compounds: the denom. nouns σrpaτny-ía (316 c) generalship, σтρаτηy-iкó-s (321) pertaining to a general; the denom. verb σтparηYé-w (327 b) to be general; and the verbal στρατήγημα(τ) stratagem derived from στρατηγέ-ω.

a. All compound verbs which do not begin with prepositions, and many which do, are denominatives from compound nouns: thus σTpaTηγέ-ω fr. στρατ-ηγό-s just given, δημοκρατέω to have popular government fr. (unused) Snuo-кратηs (331 c) having popular government fr. duo-s people and κράτος power, ἐναντιό-ομαι (203 b) to oppose fr. ἐν-αντίo-s opposite.

334. ACCENT OF COMPOUND NOUNS. -a. Direct compounds of the 2d decl. have recessive accent.

Thus eu-pvouo-s having good rhythm fr. ev well and pv-0μb-s rhythm, -odo-s departure fr. è out of and ódó-s way. But pounds (335 a) in which the last stem is a verbal of transitive meaning b. Objective comwith the suffix o (309), are accented on the penult if that is short; if that is long, on the ultima: KaрTо-póρо-s (331 a) fruit-bearing, OтPAT-NYÓ-S (333) army-leader, general. But some such compounds—especially those ending in -apx-o-s (ruler) and -ox-o-s (holder fr. ex-w) - follow the general rule: ví-oxo-s (rein-holder) charioteer fr. nvía rein, ÏÃπ-арxо-s commander of horse fr. πо-s cavalry.

c. Other compound nouns are accented, in general, like simple nouns with the same suffixes.

Thus ev-μevhs having good (kind) spirit fr. et well and μévos spirit (cf. 307), ékλek-tó-s chosen out, an indirect compound (333) derived from EK-λéy-w to choose out.

335. MEANING OF COMPOUND NOUNS. Among direct compounds we distinguish

a. OBJECTIVE COMPOUNDS, in which one part is like a dependent case, connected, either directly or by means of prepositions, with the meaning of the other part.

113

Thus στρατ-ηγό-ς (333, like στρατὸν ἄγων) army-leader, ἀξιό-λογος (301, ἄξιος λόγου) worthy of mention, χειρ-ο-ποίητο-ς (= χερσὶ ποιητός) made with hands, μισό-δημο-ς (332, = μισῶν τὸν δῆμον) hating the people, θεοφιλής (331 €, · ὑπὸ τῶν θεῶν φιλούμενος) loved by the gods.

b. POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS, in which the first part qualifies the second, while the whole depends on an implied idea of possession.

Thus ἰσό-μοιρος (= ἴσην μοῖραν ἔχων) having equal part, καλλ-ί-φωνο-ς (329, = καλὴν φωνὴν ἔχων) having a beautiful voice, πολυ-πράγμων (330, = πολλὰ πράγματα ἔχων having many affairs) busy, εὔνους (676, = ἀγαθὸν νοῦν ἔχων having a good mind) well-disposed, ἀνδρώδης (331 c, = ἀνδρὸς eldos exwv having a man's appearance) manlike.

C. DETERMINATIVE COMPOUNDS, in which the first part, like an adjective or adverb, qualifies (or determines) the second, but with no implied idea of possession.

Thus ἀκρό-πολι-ς (= ἄκρα πόλις city-summit) citadel, μεσημβρία (for μεσημερια, = μέση ἡμέρα) mid-day, ψευδ-ο-μάρτυς (= ψευδὴς μάρτυς) α false witness, sub-dovλo-s (= dμoû dovλevwv together serving) fellow-servant, ὀψι-μαθής (= ὀψὲ μαθών) late-learned.

d. PREPOSITIONS may enter into compound nouns in each of the above relations: - da. objective: Tарá-voμo-s (aside from law) illegal.-db. possessive: ev-0eo-s (having a god in him) inspired. - dc. determinative : e-odo-s (from-way, going out) departure.

336. INSEPARABLE PREFIXES. -a. ALPHA PRIVATIVE. The prefix avun- (before consonants ȧ-) with adjectives forms determ. compounds, with substantives mostly possessive compounds: ἀν-ελεύθερο-s not free, ἄκων (for ȧ-ékov, orig. a-Fekwv) unwilling, &-rais (having no children) childless. b. From this must be distinguished ALPHA CONJUNCTIVE (à- or å-, = åμa together with), as in ά-kóλoveo-s (having his way along with) attendant fr. KÉλEUDO-s (poetic) way; - and ALPHA EUPHONIC, as in a-σTaxU-s (not Attic)

=

στáxv-s ear of corn.

c. The insep. Sus- ILL (badly, difficultly) is the opposite of ev well, easily: δύς-ελπις (= κακὰς ἐλπίδας ἔχων having ill hopes) desponding, δυςáλWTO-s hard to be taken.

PART FOURTII.

SYNTAX.

DEFINITIONS.

337. SYNTAX shows how words are combined in sentences.

A SENTENCE is SIMPLE when the essential parts of a sentence are found in it only once. (For compound sen

tences, see 493.)

The essential parts of a sentence are

the SUBJECT, of which something is said, and

the PREDICATE, which is said of the subject.

The subject of a sentence is a substantive (or pronoun) in the nominative case. The predicate of a sentence is a finite verb in the same number and person as the subject.

a. The only nominatives of the first person are ¿yw, vw, żμeîs; of the second, o, op, vμeîs; all other nominatives are of the third person.

b. These are sometimes called the grammatical, in distinction from the logical, subject and predicate. The latter include, beside the nominative and finite verb, all other words in the sentence which belong to these respectively. Thus in the sentence ἤθους δικαίου φαῦλος οὐ ψαύει λόγος a bad report touches not a just character, λόγος and ψαύει are the grammatical subject and predicate, φαῦλος λόγος and ἤθους δικαίου οὐ ψαύει the logical.

c. The INFINITIVE mode, though it is not the predicate of a sentence, has its subject. The subject of the infinitive is a substantive in the accusative case (535).

338. The verb, beside its subject, may have an OBJECT on which its action is exerted. The object of a verb is a substantive in an oblique case (accusative, genitive, or dative).

a. The object is DIRECT or INDIRECT, according as it is related immediately or remotely to the action of the verb. The verb is TRANSITIVE When its action passes over to a direct object; otherwise it is INTRANSITIVE.

b. The remote relations of an object to a verb are expressed to a great extent by means of PREPOSITIONS.