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CHAPTER IX.

CONCLUSION OF A DISCOURSE.

1. It must vary with the strain of the preceding discourse. Sometimes it consists of the pathetic part. Sometimes, when the discourse has been entirely argumentative, it is fit to conclude with summing up the arguments, placing them in one view, and leaving the impression of them, full and strong, on the mind of the audience.

2. The conclusion should not be too abrupt; nor, on the other hand, so long as to excite the hearer's impatience, after he has been led to expect an end.

3. The great rule of a conclusion, and what nature obviously suggests, is, to place that last on which we choose that the strength of our cause should rest.

CHAPTER X.

GENERAL RULES AND HINTS TO DIRECT OUR REASONING. [From Watt's Logic.]

1. Accustom yourself to clear and distinct ideas, to evident propositions, to convincing arguments.

Converse much with those friends, and those books, and those parts of learning where you meet with the greatest clearness of thought and force of reasoning.

The habit of conceiving clearly, of judging justly, and of reasoning well, is to be learned only by effort and practice. It should be commenced in early life.

2. Enlarge your general acquaintance with things daily, in order to attain a rich furniture of topics, whereby those propositions which occur may be either proved or disproved; but especially meditate and inquire, with great diligence and exactness, into the nature, properties, circumstances, and relations of the particular subject about which you judge or argue.

Consider its causes, effects, adjuncts, opposites, signs, &c., so far as is needful to your present pur

pose; extend your views, as far as possible, to every thing that has a connection with the subject.

3. In your investigations, always keep the precise point of the present question in your eye. Add nothing to it while you are arguing, nor omit any part of it. Keep the precise matter of inquiry as simple as may be, disengaged from other ideas.

4. In choosing arguments to prove any point, always take such as carry the greatest evidence with them. Care less about the number than the weight of your argu

ments.

Yet there are many cases in which the growing number of probable arguments increases the degree of probability, and gives satisfactory confirmation to the truth which is sought or advocated.

5. Prove your conclusion (as far as possible) by some propositions that are in themselves more plain and evident than the conclusion; or, at least, such as are more known to the person whom you would convince.

6. Neither impose upon yourselves, nor allow yourselves to be imposed upon by others, by mistaking a mere illustration for a convincing argument.

A too great deference paid to similitudes, and an utter rejection of them, seem to be two extremes, and ought to be avoided.

7. In your whole course of reasoning, keep your mind and the minds of others sincerely intent on the pursuit of truth, and follow sound argument wheresoever it leads you. Let not party spirit, nor any passion or prejudice, stop or turn aside the current of your reasoning in quest of true knowledge.

Maintain a true regard, therefore, to the arguments and objections on both sides of a question; consider, compare, and balance them well before you determine for one side.

When we espouse opinions through the influence merely of fear, hope, honor, credit, interest, or any other prejudice, and then seek arguments only to support those opinions, we have neither done our duty to God nor to ourselves.

The power of reasoning was given by our Maker

for this very end, to pursue truth; and we abuse one of his richest gifts if we basely yield it up, to be led astray by any of the meaner powers of nature, or the perishing interests of this life. Reasoning itself, if honestly obeyed, will lead us to receive the divine revelation of the Gospel, where it is duly proposed, and this will show us the path of life everlasting.

CHAPTER XI.

RULES OF METHOD IN THE PURSUIT OR COMMUNICATION OF KNOWLEDGE.

[From Watts's Logic.]

RULE I. It must be safe or secure from error.

To this end, observe these four directions.

(1.) Use great care in laying the foundation of your discourse, or your scheme of thoughts upon any subject.

Those propositions which are to stand as first principles, and on which the whole argument depends, must be viewed on all sides with the utmost accuracy, lest an error, being admitted there, should diffuse itself over the whole subject.

(2.) It is advisable not only to adopt as fundamental propositions those which are evident and true, but to render them familiar to the mind, by dwelling upon them before you proceed farther.

This will enable you to draw consequences from them with more freedom, with greater variety, and with brighter evidence than if you have but a slight and hasty view of them.

(3.) As you proceed in the argument, see that your ground be made firm at every step.

See that every link of your chain of reasoning be strong and good.

(4.) Draw up all your propositions and arguments with so much caution, and express your ideas with such a just limitation, as may preclude or anticipate any objections. If, however, such cautious limitations should render the ideas too much complicated, or the sense obscure, then it is better to keep the argument more simple and easy to be understood, and afterward mention the objections dis

tinctly in their full strength, and give a distinct answer to them.

RULE II. Let your method be plain and easy, so that your hearers or readers, as well as yourself, may run through it without embarrassment, and may take a clear and comprehensive view of the whole scheme. In order to this:

(1.) Begin always with those things that are best known and most obvious, so that the mind may have no difficulty or fatigue, and proceed by regular and easy steps to things that are more difficult.

(2.) Crowd not too many thoughts into one sentence or paragraph beyond the capacity of your readers or hearers. For the same reason, avoid too many subdivisions.

RULE III. Let your method be distinct, and without the perplexing mixture of things that ought to be kept separate.

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RULE IV. The method of treating a subject should be full, so that nothing may be wanting; nothing which is necessary or proper should be omitted.

Let your explanations, your enumeration of parts or properties, your divisions, your illustrations, your narrative of circumstances, and your distributions of things, be so accurate that no needful idea or part be left out.

This fullness of method does not require that every thing should be said which can be said upon any subject; but you should say every thing which is necessary to the design in view, and which has a proper and direct tendency to this end; always proportioning the amount of your matter and the fullness of your discourse to your great design, to the length of your time, to the convenience, delight, and profit of your hearers.

RULE V. As your method must be full without deficiency, so it must be brief, or without superfluity.

The following are some of the redundancies that are to be avoided:

(1.) All needless repetitions of the same thing in different parts of the discourse.

(2.) A tedious prolixity in one part to the neglect or too rapid disposal of, perhaps, more important parts.

(3.) The multiplying of explications where there is no difficulty, or darkness, or danger of mistake.

(4.) The practice of proving those things which need no proof.

(5.) The mention and refuting of objections that are so evidently false as to need no refutation, and such as no man in sober earnest would offer.

RULE VI. Let your method be appropriate to the subject in hand, to your present design, and to the capaci ties and tastes of your hearers or readers.

RULE VII. The parts of a discourse should be well con nected. For this purpose,

(1) Keep your main end and design ever in view, and let all the parts of your discourse have a perceptible tendency toward it.

(2.) Let the mutual relation and dependency of the parts be such-so just and evident, that every part may naturally lead on to the next, without material interruptions intervening.

(3.) Render yourself familiar with the best forms of transition from one part of a discourse to another, and practice them as occasion offers.

CHAPTER XII.

DEFECTS OF DR. JOHNSON'S STYLE OF WRITING.

[Supplementary to Part vi., Sec. v.]

The works of the celebrated Dr. Samuel Johnson have exerted, and still exert so commanding an influence on the style of modern composition, that the author can not close his volume without subjoining a few lines, to caution those who study it against too close an imitation of Johnson's peculiar style. They are taken from Macauley's Review of Boswell's Life of Johnson.

JOHNSON, as Mr. Burke most justly observed, appears far greater in Boswell's books than in his own. His conversation appears to have been quite equal to his writings in matter, and far superior to them in manner. When he talked, he clothed his wit and his sense in forcible and natural expressions. As soor

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