dice. The convulsions and pains which they occasion frequently require the application of particular medicines to relieve the immediate suffering, besides those directed against the disease itself: the patient is often relieved from them by vomiting or by stool. B. Urinary calculi are sometimes a kind of coarse sand, called gravel, which sinks immediately to the bottom of the vessel in which the urine is left. Sometimes they are real stones, of the size of a pea, of a walnut, or even of the fist. They are found either about the kidneys, and then cause pains, inflammations, and suppuration, or in the pelvis of the kidneys. In this case, from time to time, single stones pass into the bladder, with violent pains extending from the region of the kidneys downward or backward, and are carried off with the urine; or they originate in the bladder itself, where they often acquire a very considerable size. They cause pains in the region of the bladder and in the perinæum, and great suffering during the discharges of the urine. It often happens that this can be discharged only in certain positions, and drop by drop, with great pain; is slimy, smells of fensively, and is mixed with blood and gravel. The examination by the catheter affords the most certain information respecting the existence of calculi, if, as sometimes happens, the stone does not lie enclosed (encysted) in a certain part of the bladder. To destroy urinary stones, internal means have been recommended; but they are little to be depended on. If the stone in the bladder increases so much that it prevents entirely the discharge of the urine, it is necessary to remove it by the knife (lithotomy), or by breaking it to pieces in the bladder (lithotrity). The operation of lithotomy may be performed in four different ways: I. By the apparatus minor, an operation described by Celsus, and very simple, requiring few instruments; whence the name. The operator introduces his middle finger and fore finger up the anus, and endeavors to bring the stone towards the neck of the bladder. He then cuts on the left side of the perinæum, directly on the stone. 2. In the high operation, the bladder is opened on the opposite side, over the pubes. 3. When the apparatus major is applied, the urethra is widened so much, that a forceps can be introduced, and the stone extracted. The name of apparatus major is used on account of the number of instruments required. 4. The lateral operation is generally considered as the safest and most effectual, and is

the most common. Its object is to divide that part of the urethra which suffered extremely in the application of the apparatus major, from the means used to distend it; and as the lower side of the urethra cannot be divided far enough, without the rectum being wounded, the cut is directed sideways. This is the reason of the name. Lately, the operation of cutting the bladder through the rectum has been introduced.

In

STONE, Thomas, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was a descendant of William Stone, governor of Maryland during the protectorate of Cromwell. He received a classical education. Having subsequently studied law, he commenced its practice in Fredericktown, Md. May, 1775, he took his seat in the general congress, and was for several years reelected to the same station. Soon after the declaration of independence, to which he had subscribed his name, he was one of the committee appointed by congress to prepare articles of confederation. After the plan reported was agreed to, Mr. Stone declined a reëlection, but became a member of the Maryland legislature, in which he greatly contributed to procure favor for the system adopted. In 1783, he was again sent to congress. He then finally retired, and engaged actively in the duties of his profession; but, in 1787, the death of his wife engendered a deep and abiding melancholy. His health declined; and, on the fifth of October of the same year, he suddenly expired, in the forty-fifth year of his age, when on the point of embarking for England.

STONE WARE. Under the denomination stone ware are comprehended all the different artificial combinations of earthy bodies which are applied to useful purposes. (See Pottery.)

STONES, PRECIOUS. (See Gems.) STONES, SHOWERS OF. (See Meteoric Stones.)

STONEHENGE. (See Salisbury Plain.) STONINGTON; a seaport, and incorporated borough, in New London county, Connecticut. It is situated in the township of Stonington, on a point of land, half a mile long, at the eastern extremity of Long Island sound. It is a commercial town, and has several vessels employed in the fisheries, and others in the West India and coasting trade. Population in 1830, 3401. August 8, 1814, while a British fleet was lying off this harbor, a brig of eighteen guns was ordered to bombard the town. The village was wholly unprepared for this attack, and was, for a

considerable time, in much confusion. At length, two eighteen pounders were found; and with these so active and well directed a fire was kept up on the brig, that she was greatly damaged, and compelled to cut her cables and retire, with many killed and wounded.

STOOL OF REPENTANCE. (See Cutty Stool.)

STOP; a word applied by violin and violoncello performers to that pressure of the strings by which they are brought into contact with the finger-board, and by which the pitch of the note is determined. Hence a string, when so pressed, is said to be stopped.-Stop of an organ; a collection of pipes similar in tone and quality, which run throughthe whole, or a great part, of the compass of the instrument. In a great organ, the stops are numerous and multifarious.

STOP-LAWS. (See Execution.)

STORAX; a gum-resin, obtained by incisions in the branches of a small tree (styrax officinalis), which grows wild in the countries about the Mediterranean. The leaves are alternate, oval, petiolate, green above, whitish and downy beneath, resembling those of the quince. The flowers are disposed in racemes, white, and very much resemble those of the orange. The fruit is whitish and downy, juiceless, and contains one or two angular nuts. The storax of commerce is chiefly obtained from Asiatic Turkey. It has a fragrant odor, and an agreeable, slightly pungent, and aromatic taste; is stimulant, and in some degree expectorant. Formerly it was much employed in medicine, but now is little used, except in perfumes. Benzoin is a gum-resin, obtained, in a similar manner, from a species of styrax, growing wild in the East Indies. We have three species of styrax in the southern parts of the U. States.

STORK (Ciconia). These tall and stately birds are easily distinguished from the herons by the small mouth, the angle not reaching beyond the eyes, as with the last; the beak is also destitute of the nasal furrow, but is similar in other respects, is straight, long, pointed, and compressed. Most of them inhabit the eastern continent, especially between the tropics. South America is not altogether destitute of them; but we have none in the U. States. They walk slowly, with measured steps; but their flight is powerful and long continued. They have no voice, but produce a clattering with their bills, by striking the mandibles together. Their food consists of fish, reptiles, small quadrupeds, worms, and insects. The com

mon stork of Europe (C. alba) is about four feet in length, from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the nails. The prevailing color of the plumage is white, with some black about the wings. It is found throughout the greater part of Europe, but passes the winter in Africa. It takes up its residence and breeds in the midst of cities, and is every where protected, as it renders important services in destroying noxious animals. Among the ancients, to kill them was considered a crime, which, in some places, was punished even with death; and, like the ibis, this bird became an object of worship. The stork is remarkable for its great affection towards its young, but especially for its attention to its parents in old age. The gigantic stork, or adjutant. of Bengal (C. argala), is a celebrated bird, very common about the mouths of the Ganges, and even in the streets of Calcutta, where it is protected by law, as also in other parts of the East Indies. It is stoutly framed, and the extreme length is nearly seven feet. The head and neck are destitute of feathers, and covered with a reddish and callous skin; and from the middle of the latter hangs a fleshy appendage. The bill is enormously large. It lives on reptiles, fish, &c., and even on quadrupeds, whose bones it breaks previously to swallowing. In captivity its gluttony is extreme.

STORR, Gottlob Christian, doctor of theology, consistorial counsellor and first minister to the court at Stuttgart, was born, in 1746, at Stuttgart, where he died in 1805. Storr was distinguished for his pious life, and faithful fulfilment of his duties as professor of theology and preacher at Tübingen, as well as for his great learning, exhibited in various works, among which are his Observations on the Syriac Translations of the New Testament, in 1772, and on the Arabian Gospels, in 1775, both in German; Observationes ad Analogiam et Syntaxin Hebraicam pertinentes (1779); his Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews; his learned treatise On the true Object of Christ's Death (2d ed. Tübingen, 1809); On the Object of the Evangelical History, and the Epistles of John (1786); New Defence of the Revelation of John (1783), the Dissertationes in Apocalypsis quædam Loca belonging to it, and his Doctrina Christiana Pars theoret, e sacr. Lit. repetita (1793).

STORTHING; the Norwegian diet (from Thing, assembly, and stor, great, elevated). The citizens qualified to vote choose electors, who from among themselves or

their constituents, select the representatives, whose number is not to be under seventy-five, nor above one hundred. A member of the storthing must be thirty years old; must have resided ten years in the realm; must hold no office, civil or military; must not be attached to the court, nor receive a pension. Generally the storthing is held every third year, at the beginning of February, in the capital, Christiania. After the storthing is opened by the king or his deputy, it chooses one fourth part of its members to form the logthing: the other three fourths form the odelsthing. Each thing holds its sessions separately, and with open doors, and the debates are published, unless a resolution to the contrary be passed. The storthing is authorized to make and abolish laws; to impose taxes; open loans; see that the finances are properly administered; grant the civil list, &c. The government protocols, and all public papers, including treaties with foreign powers, must be laid before them, the secret articles only excepted, and these must not be contrary to the public ones; it may summon any body before it, except the king and viceroy; and it confers naturalization. Laws are proposed in the odelsthing, by its members, or by a counsellor of state: if they pass there, they go to the logthing. The king is to sign the bills, or to decline so doing. If a bill, twice rejected by the king, is adopted without alteration by a third regular storthing, it becomes a law, even without the king's sanction. In this manner nobility was abolished in Norway. STOSCH, Philip, baron von, a distinguished numismatist, born 1691, at Cüstrin, in Germany, studied at Frankfort on the Oder, and was designed for the ecclesiastical profession; but his taste led him to devote his time to numismatics. In 1708, he visited Jena, Dresden, Leipsic, and other places in Germany, for the purpose of examining cabinets of medals and antiquities. In 1710, the Dutch statesman Fagel employed him on a mission to England, where he became acquainted with sir Hans Sloaue, lords Pembroke, Winchelsea, Carteret, and other virtuosi. In 1714, he went to Rome; and, returning to Germany, he engaged in collecting other antiques, particularly engraved gems. At Augsburg he discovered the celebrated "Peutinger Table." (q. v.) He was afterwards English resident at Rome, for the purpose of observing the conduct of the Pretender and his adherents. This post becoming_hazardous after the accession of pope Clement XII, who favored the

Stuarts, baron Stosch withdrew to Florence, where he died in 1757. His collections, and especially those of cameos and engraved gems, were peculiarly valuable. A catalogue of the latter was drawn up by Winckelmann. The baron himself published two volumes of plates, representing his gems, engraved by Picart and Schweikart.

STOVES. Stoves differ from fire-places (q. v.) by enclosing the fire so as to exclude it from sight, the heat being given out through the material of which the stove is composed. The common Holland stove, of which we have an almost infinite variety of modifications, is an iron box, of an oblong square form, intended to stand in the middle of a room. The air is admitted to the fire through a small opening in the door, and the smoke passes off through a narrow funnel. The advantages of this stove are, 1. that, being insulated, and detached from the walls of the room, a greater part of the heat produced by the combustion is saved. The radiated heat being thrown into the walls of the stove, they become hot, and, in their turn, radiate heat on all sides to the room. The conducted heat is also received by successive portions of the air of the room, which pass in contact with the stove. 2. The air being made, as in furnaces, to pass through the fuel, a very small supply is sufficient to keep up the combustion, so that little need be taken out of the room. 3. The smoke, being confined by the cavity of the stove, cannot easily escape into the room, and may be made to pass off by a small funnel, which, if sufficiently thin and circuitous, may cause the smoke to part with a great portion of its heat, before it leaves the apartment. These circumstances render the Holland stove one of the most powerful means we can employ for keeping up a regular and effectual heat, with a small expense of fuel. The disadvantages of these stoves are, that houses containing them are never well ventilated, but that the same air remains stagnant in a room for a great length of time. A dryness of the air is also produced, which is oppressive to most persons, so that it often becomes necessary to place an open vessel of water on the stove, the evaporation of which may supply moisture to the atmosphere. Stoves are very useful in large rooms, which are frequented occasionally, but not inhabited constantly; as halls, churches, &c. In cold countries, where it is desirable to obtain a comfortable warmth, even at the sacrifice of other

conveniences, various inodifications of the common stoves have been introduced, to render them more powerful, and their heat more effectual. The Swedish and Russian stoves are small furnaces, with a very circuitous smoke flue. In principle, they resemble a common stove, with a funnel bent round and round, until it has performed a great number of turns or revolutions, before it enters the chimney. It differs, however, in being wholly enclosed in a large box of stone or brick work, which is intersected with air pipes. In operation, it communicates heat more slowly, being longer in becoming hot, and also slower in becoming cold, than the common stove. Russian stoves are usually provided with a damper, or valve, at top, which is used to close the funnel or passage, when the smoke has ceased to ascend. Its operation, however, is highly pernicious, since burning coals, when they have ceased to smoke, always give out carbonic acid in large quantities, which, if it does not escape up chimney, must deteriorate the air of the apartment, and render it unsafe.

Cellar Stoves and Air Flues. Such is the tendency of heated or rarefied air to ascend, that buildings may be effectually warmed by air flues communicating with stoves in the cellar, or any part of the building below that to be warmed. A large suite of apartments may be sufficiently heated in this way by a single stove. The stove, for this purpose, should be of a kind best adapted to communicate heat. It should be entirely enclosed in a detached brick chamber, the wall of which should be double, that it may be a better non-conductor of heat. The space between the brick chamber and stove should not exceed an inch. In the apparatus of the Derbyshire and Wakefield infirmaries, which has been imitated in this country, the whole of the air is repeated ly conducted, by numerous pipes, within half an inch of the stove and its cockle. For the supply of fuel, the same door which opens into the chamber, should open also into the stove, that there may never be any communication with the air of the cellar. A current of external air should be brought down by a separate passage, and delivered under the s.ove. A part of this air is admitted to supply the combustion; the rest passes upward in the cavity between the hot stove and the wall of the brick chamber, and, after becoming thoroughly heated, is conducted through passages in which its levity causes it to ascend, and be delivered into any

apartment of the house. Different branch es being established from the main pipe, and commanded by valves or shutters, the hot air can be distributed at pleasure to any one or more rooms at a time. This plan is very useful in large buildings, such as manufactories, hospitals, &c., on account of the facility with which the same stove may be made to warm the whole, or any part of them. The advantage of a long vertical draught enables us to establish a more forcible current of warm air. The rooms, while they are heated, are also ventilated, for the air which is continually brought in by the warm pipes, displaces that which was previously in the room, and the air blows out at the crevices and key-holes, instead of blowing in, as it does in rooms with common fireplaces. (See Bigelow's Technology, 2d ed. 1832.)

Srow, John; an English historian and antiquary, born about 1525, in London. His father, a tailor, brought him up to his own business; but his mind early took a bent towards antiquarian researches. About the year 1560, he formed the design of composing the annals of English history, for the completion of which he quitted his trade. For the purpose of examining records, charters, and other documents, he travelled on foot to several public establishments, and purchased old books, manuscripts, and parchments, until he had made a valuable collection. Being thought to be favorable to the ancient religion, an information was laid against him, in 1568, as a suspicious person, who possessed many dangerous books. The bishop of London accordingly ordered an investigation of his study, in which, of course, were found many popish books among the rest; but the result has not been recorded. Two years afterwards, an unnatural brother, having defrauded him of his goods, sought to take away his life by preferring one hundred and forty articles against him, before the ecclesiastical commission; but he was acquitted. He had previously printed his first work, entitled a Summarie of the Englyshe Chronicles, compiled at the instance of Dudley, afterwards earl of Leicester, which was published in 1565, and afterwards continued by Edinond Howes, who printed several editions. He contributed to the improvement of the second edition of Holinshed, in 1587, and gave corrections and notes to two editions of Chaucer. At length, in 1598, appeared his Survey of London, the work on which he had been so long employed, and which

came to a second edition during his lifetime. He was very anxious to publish his large chronicle, or history of England, but lived only to print an abstract of it, entitled Flores Historiarum, or Annals of England. From his papers, Howes published a folio volume, entitled Stow's Chronicle, which does not, however, contain the whole of the larger work, which he had left, transcribed for the press, and which is said to have fallen into the possession of sir Symonds Dewes. A license was granted him by James I, "to repair to churches or other places, to receive the charitable benevolence of well-disposed people," in the seventy-eighth year of his age. He died, afflicted by poverty and disease, in 1605, at the age of eighty. Stow's Survey has run through six editions, the last in 1754, with considerable additions, and a continuation of the useful lists.

STOWE; a parish in Buckinghamshire, England, two miles north-west of Buckingham, containing the celebrated seat, garden and pleasure-grounds of the duke of Buckingham. The house, situated on an eminence rising from a lake, measures 916 feet from east to west; the saloon, 60 feet long, 43 feet broad, and 564 feet high, cost nearly 60,000 dollars; the state drawing-room, 50 feet by 32, and 22 feet high, contains a collection of fine pictures, mostly by the old masters. The library consists of 10,000 printed volumes, with many valuable manuscripts. The house is approached through a Corinthian arch, 60 feet high by 60 wide. The gardens comprise four hundred acres of highly decorated grounds. Temples, obelisks, statues, grottoes, &c., scattered around in great profusion, seem to realize the descriptions of enchanted gardens. The Elysian fields, watered by a small rivulet, issuing from a grotto, and emptying into a lake, contain the figures of heroes, poets and philosophers. In the temple of Ancient Virtue, a circular building of the Ionic order, stand the statues of Homer, Lycurgus, Socrates, and Epaminondas. The temple of British worthies contains busts of Shakspeare, Milton, Pope, Newton, Bacon, Locke, &c. The temple of Concord and Virtue is a handsome building, of an oblong shape, surrounded with 28 fluted Ionic columns. Lord Cobham's pillar is a column 115 feet high, surmounted by a statue. The Gothic temple, a triangular building, with a tower at each end, is richly adorned with old painted glass.

STOWELL, lord. Sir William Scott, who was created baron Stowell in 1821, is the elder brother of lord Eldon (q. v.),

and was born at Newcastle, in 1745. His father, a respectable proprietor of coal mines there, determined to train him to his own business. But the talents and eager inclination for study, manifested by the young man, finally induced his father to send him to Oxford, where, after taking his degree of doctor of civil law, he was appointed Camden professor of his tory. His lectures there gained him reputation; and, in 1779, he left the university, and entered upon the study of ecclesiastical law. His practice in the spiritual courts soon became extensive, and raised him, in 1788, to the post of king's advocate-general: he was at the same time knighted. In 1799, he was appointed judge of the high court of admiralty, which post he resigned a few years ago. (See Commercial Law.) Sir William Scott entered parliament in 1792, and continued to represent the university of Oxford, in that body, from 1802 till he was summoned to the house of peers, in 1821.

STRABO, a distinguished Greek geographer, was born at Amasia, in Cappadocia, about 19 A. D., studied rhetoric and the Aristotelian philosophy, and afterwards embraced the Stoic doctrines. He travelled through Greece, Italy, Egypt, and Asia, endeavoring to obtain the most accurate information in regard to the geography, statistics and political conditions of the countries which he visited. The time of his death is unknown. His great geographical work, in seventeen books, contains a full account of the manners and governments of different people: his materials were derived from his own observations and inquiries, or from the geographical works of Hecatæus, Artemidorus, Eudoxius, and Eratosthenes, now lost, and the writings of historians and poets. His work is invaluable to us. The last editions are those of Siebenkees (continued by Tzschucke, but not completed, Leipsic, 1796-1811, 7 vols.) and of Coray (4 vols., Paris, 1819.) Those of Casaubon (1620, fol.) and Almeloveen (Amsterdam, 1707, 2 vols., fol.) are also highly esteemed.

STRADA, Famianus; an Italian historian, and elegant writer of modern Latin poetry, born at Rome, in 1572. He entered into the society of the Jesuits in 1592, and became professor of rhetoric at the Roman college, where he resided till his death, in 1649.. His most famous works are a History of the Wars in the Netherlands, in Latin, and Prolusiones Academica, which have been repeatedly published. In one of these prolusions, he has