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LECTURE XXXVIII.-THE END OF THE WAR.

Caxton and the printing-press. Richard III. His victims. Murder of the young princes. Henry Tudor. Battle of Bosworth Field.

1. WHILE all these events were taking place among the illustrious heads of the nation, there was going on in the precincts of Westminster Abbey a work far more important and interesting than the battles, victories, defeats, or marriages of all the kings and queens in the world. That beautiful abbey, round which so much of English history clusters, had seen many splendid sights-gorgeous coronations, stately funerals; but the work that was doing there now was so quiet, so humble, in the midst of all the clash of arms and dynasties, that comparatively few people knew or cared much about it; and yet it made a greater change and a happier change than almost any other work we know of; it was the first introduction into England of the art of printing.

2. To realize how great that work was we have only to try and think how we should feel without it now; how we should do without our Bibles and prayer-books, our histories and poems, our tales and newspapers. Four hundred years ago perhaps none of us should ever have seen such a thing. It was noticed a few pages back how coming events were casting their shadows before. The higher classes were beginning to care more and more for books, and not to leave them any longer to priests and monks. The richer ones had collected fine libraries, and others, who were not so rich, still had some books of their own, and could read and enjoy them.

3. When we go into a strange house, not knowing much of the people who live in it, one of the first things we do, if we can, is to cast an eye over their bookshelves, and by seeing the books they read, we judge a little what sort of people they are. So if we could know the sort of books which our forefathers read we should feel a little more intimate and acquainted with them. We are fortunate enough to have got a catalogue of a private gentleman's library (preserved almost by chance) just before printing was invented. There

An old library.

were altogether about thirty books. There was no Bible among them, but there were a few books of religion and morali'y : one a sort of prayer-book; one a legend, or life of a saint; and some of Cicero's writings on friendship, wisdom, and old age. One was about the blazonings, crests, and coats of arms, which all gentlemen thought so much of; some were about the duties of knights and the laws of the land. Then there were some of Chaucer's poems, and several tales and romances, some of which were perhaps thought to be English history, since there was one about King Arthur, and one about Richard Coeur de Lion. It would not be at all disagreeable to be shut up for a few months in a country house with these thirty books as companions.

4. We know too how much they cost, for there is the bill of the man who wrote them out for Sir John Paston, their owner. It appears that the copyist got twopence a leaf for prose, and a penny a leaf for poetry (where, of course, the lines would be shorter), and something extra for "rubrissheing," or decorating the pages with red initial letters, and so on, like the "rubric " of a prayer-book. The price of one leaf ornamented a little in this way would have been in our money about two shillings, and a whole book would be therefore very costly.

The art of printing.

5. But just now something began to be heard of a marvellous art in Germany, by which copies were made wonderfully fast, and sold wonderfully cheap. What a copyist would expect 500 crowns for producing could be sold for sixty crowns! It was not wonderful that at first people thought this must have something to do with the black art, and that the man who did it got the credit of being a magician, though he was only sending out copies of the Bible, which we should not think the devil would be very eager to do. 6. There happened to be living in Flanders at this time a very intelligent Englishman, William Caxton, who had been the apprentice of a London mercer, but had gone abroad, most likely, on some mercantile business. Flanders at that period belonged to the Duke of Burgundy; and as it was very important both to Flanders and to England that they should be good friends, on account of the trade between the two countries, Edward IV. had married one of his sisters to the Duke of Burgundy. This English duchess was very kind to our Londoner. Caxton, though he had been bred a mercer, was fond of literary work, and of books; and at this time he was translating into English a French book about The History of

Caxton.

Troy.' The duchess took great interest in it, and even helped him in some parts. And as he expected a great many people would like to read it, he made up his mind that, instead of having it copied out by hand, he would try the strange new invention, and have it printed.

1471.

7. He knew well enough that there was no magic in it, and he took great pains to learn the whole art. His book was finished at Bruges, and was the first English book that was ever printed. He gave this account of it himself: "Thus end I this book, which I have translated out of mine author as nigh as God hath given me cunning, to whom be given the laud and praising. And for as much as in the writing of the same my pen is worn, mine hand weary, and not steadfast, mine eyes dimmed with overmuch looking on the white paper, and my courage not so prone and ready to labour as it hath been, and that age creepeth on me daily and feebleth all the body, and also because I have promised to divers gentlemen and to my friends to address to them as hastily as I might this said book, therefore I have practised and learned, at my great charge and dispense, to ordain this said book in print after the manner and form as ye may here see; and is not written with pen and ink, as other books be, to the end that every one may have them at once." Although he complains so pathetically of being old and feeble, he was really not quite sixty when he wrote this, and he went on working for about twenty years longer.

8. Five or six years afterwards he came to England, and settled himself in the precincts of Westminster Abbey. It is not quite clear why he chose that place for his labours. Perhaps it was because, hitherto, nearly, if not quite all, the writing and copying had been done in monasteries. Every monastery had a room called the "copying-room," where the writers sat writing and sometimes beautifully ornamenting the books, so it may have seemed the most natural thing for this new kind of copying to be done there too. Or, again, Caxton may have thought that it would save him from the charge of sorcery to do his work in so holy a place, under the sanction of the abbot; and the " tuary too would be a protection to him if he came into any danger.

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9. In England he was favoured by the king and the royal family, including Richard, as in Bruges he had been by the Duchess of Burgundy; and especially by the queen's brother, Lord Rivers, who, besides being a learned and accomplished gentleman, was an author himself, and had written a book

called 'The Dictes, and notable wyse Sayings of the Phylosophers; and that book was the first ever printed in England. Soon after two other books were written by him, and printed by Caxton; the last one he wrote when he was thirty-six years old, only three years before his untimely death.

1477.

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10. Some of the other books which Caxton printed and published were a history and a geography of our own country; a book giving an account of the universe as far as it was understood (or misunderstood) at that time, showing how "the earth holdeth right in the middle of the world" (or universe, as we should say), and giving a description of the "celestial paradise." He also printed Chaucer's 'Canterbury Tales,' some of Gower's writings, the story of 'Reineke Fuchs,' or 'Reynard the Fox,' 'Esop's Fables,' and the History of Arthur and his Knights,' as it had been newly written by an Englishman; some other tales and romances, legends of saints, and several religious books. One cannot help feeling sorry that among all these he did not print the Bible; but at this time it was forbidden by law to circulate Wycliffe's Bible, and had he printed it most likely he and his printing-presses would have come to a very summary end. There seems little doubt that he was a simple-hearted, religious man, and when beginning any work he would offer a short prayer that he might be able to bring it to a good end, “to the honour and glory of Almighty God."

Some of the very books he printed are to be seen now in the British Museum.

11. Though Caxton and his work are much more interesting than Edward IV., we must now go back to him, who no doubt thought himself of far more importance. Having conquered all his opponents at home, he began to think of making himself busy abroad, and going to war with France again, which the English were generally glad enough to do. For this purpose, of course, plenty of money was required, and though the parliament, in a lawful way, gave him a good large sum, he still thought he wanted more. With all his apparent good nature, Edward had a strong will and arbitrary character. He did not like to be dependent on parliament for money or anything else, yet he did not dare, as some kings had tried to do before him, to lay on taxes without its consent. He bethought him of a very ingenious expedient, which was to ask the rich citizens out of kindness to give him a large sum of money, which was called a benevolence," or token of good will. In truth, the

Benevolences.

66

citizens would much rather not have given it, but they dared not refuse; as though," says More, "the name of benevolence had signified that every man should pay not what he himself of his good will list to grant, but what the king of his good will list to take." So, though bearing so pleasing a name, it was to all intents and purposes an additional tax, and we shall hear more about the effects of the ingenious idea by and bye. Meanwhile, though he got so much money, the war came to nothing.

12. There was a new King of France now, Louis XI., who was as wicked as the worst France ever had, and much more clever than most of them. He did not wish to go to war with England, having his hands full of other busi- The King of France. ness, so by skill and bribes he contrived to make friends with Edward and his counsellors and send them all back to England. The two kings met, but their first interview was a very singular one; it took place on a bridge over the river Somme, not far from Amiens. Nobody had yet forgotten the murder of the Duke of Burgundy by the dauphin on the bridge at Montereau; accordingly, these two civilized, polished, and Christian kings could not approach each other without as great precau tions as if they had been wild beasts. Across the middle of the bridge a strong barricade was set up, consisting of a firm grating or lattice work, such as lions' cages are made of; the space between the bars was just wide enough to admit a man's arm. The two kings bowed to each other in the most polite and respectful manner, one on each side of the barrier, and then embraced each other through the holes of the grating. After a long and friendly conversation, in which the chronicler tells us the King of England spoke very good French, they shook hands through the grating, and parted. Soon afterwards Edward returned to England with very little glory but plenty of French

money.

13. All this time Richard was still watching his opportunity, never flinching in his determination to arrive at the throne at last, no matter who stood in his way. The enemies of his house, Henry VI. and his son, being dead, and Henry of Richmond being banished to Brittany, there only remained his own near relations. The next one to die was his brother Clarence, who was older than he, and therefore had a better chance. Clarence had already played the traitor twice, but he does not appear to have done any harm since. His wife was the sister of Richard's wife, and he had two young children. Edward was now induced to charge him with treason, and, stranger still, with

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