In thus giving the general outlines of these leaves, we have taken little notice of the serrated edges, as these are not essential to the outline, and they can in all cases be easily added, after the former are well secured. It would be an easy matter to multiply such examples as these; but being desirous that all our pupils should see things for themselves, and cultivate the habit of observing nature, we recommend them to procure such real leaves and branches for themselves, and to endeavour, with the assistance of these lessons, to make drawings of their actual outlines from life. This practice will do much in forming the eye and hand of the artis; and where there has been considerable practice in Linear Drawing previously, it will tend much more to the advancement of the student than merely copying from prints or other drawings. Those of our readers who have mastered Lessons III. and IV., will now be able to follow the hints given in this lesson to any extent. We shall soon have to direct their attention to Drawing in Perspective, and to explain much that embarrasses the untutored eye; but as a hint, which will be found useful in drawing such objects as have the ellipse for the basis of their forms, it may be observed that, with two exceptions, in whatsoever direction you look at an ellipse, it has always an ellipse for its outline, the proportions of its diameters varying as the direction is altered. The exceptions are, that there is one direction in which the diameters appearing equal to each other, the ellipse appears as a circle; and another direction, in which one diameter disappearing, the ellipse appears as a straight line. In the group of flowers, fig. 70, with which we close this lesson, the large flower to the left is the Java lily; the dark flower next to it is the zinia; to the right, a little above, is a carnation; the light, delicate flowers next to it are clematis; and beyond is the achimenes. The last has a monopetalous corolla; the zinia and the carnation are specimens of compound flowers; and the lily exhibits the pistil in the centre, with the stamens surmounted by anthers around. LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-No. XXXV. By JOHN R. BEARD, D.D. Ir words degenerate they also improve. As a nation refines, its thoughts refine. What, therefore, was originally material becomes intellectual. The intellectual, too, may pass into the moral, and the moral may be elevated into the spiritual. Our most purely spiritual terms were all physical in their origin. What a wide difference is there between birth and the new birth; between generation and regenerati n. Spirit in its original Latin is merely breath or breathing. Heaven, the state of spiritual blessedness, if viewed derivatively, is merely the heaved up place, as hell is the covered place; hellyer is still used in some parts of England for a coverer, that is, a tiler or slater, a house-coverer. And what is virtue? originally, but the quality of vir,-that is, a man! And what was that quality? Valour; he was emphatically the man who was most brave. rumen (ruminis), the gullet rumin rus (ruris), the country Happy, too, is a word whi has undergone a favourable trans-scando, I climb formation. You see its primitive meaning in happen and mis-scindo, I cleave scio, I know hap. Hap, originally, was applied to a good or a bad event, scribo, I write scriptus, written signifying occurrence merely. But in this world of goodness, the general tenor of events is such as to promote men's good, hence to receive its haps is to be happy, and to be exceptional in regard to its haps is to be unhappy : "Such happes which happen in such hapless warres, rus, rur sacri, sacer sali sali sault, sult salv sanct satis, sati satur scend scind sci scrib script semen (seminis), seed There are words represented as of recent origin which may claim some age. The term Rationalist owes not its birth to the influence of recent German philosophy, but was used under the "Let me wipe off this honourable dew scurr sect sess semin Expletives are words not needed for to fill up and round off the sentence. be avoided : "While expletives their feeble aid do join, And ten low words oft creep in one dull line." The term depone in law phraseology is used by the Scotch where we use depose. The distinction is arbitrary, for we speak of the deponent while we say he deposes, not depones; though of old depones was used in England: "And further Sprot deponeth, &c."-" State Trials." The retina, or eye-net, the immediate seat or rather instrument of vision, is the net-like expansion of the optic nerve, on which objects are drawn, and from which they are made visible by the mind. Reticulated denotes that which is made like net-work. Hence the meaning of reticule or little bag made of net-work, sometime since much in use among ladies. To ruminate is to pass and repass the food through the rumen or gullet in order to its repeated chewing. Hence the phrase to chew the cud. Metaphorically, to ruminate is to muse, to reflect calmly ;— "As when a traveller, a long day past, In painful search of what he cannot find, In prose we say to ruminate on,—that is, to meditate upon :"He practises a slow meditation, and ruminates on the subject.”— Watts, "On the Mind." Bankrupt, a term of French extraction, properly denotes a trader or money-dealer whose bank or bench is broken, the last condition of commercial destitution : "A bankrupt is defined a trader who secretes himself, or does certain other acts tending to defraud his creditors."-Blackstone. The terms rustic and rural differ in their application, the first being said of persons, the second of things. Rustics are often insensible to the loveliness of rural scenes. COMPOSITION. me to expend in the work is a guinea, or a guinea and a half.”— Let us set the limit at a guinea and a half”—“ Nay, I am not sure I shall be able to raise that sum, and I am sure it will be a long time first."-" You did not hear me out; I was going to say that taking a guinea and a half as the highest price, I would men tion several dictionaries which range from that down to six or seven shillings."-"Thank you, that plan will suit me very well.” dictionary of the celebrated Doctor Samuel Johnson. I may, -"With a guinea and a half for our highest point, we exclude the however, remark that to that learned man we owe the commence ment of sound lexicography in regard to the English tongue.""Lexicography! what is that?"-"Dr. Johnson himself shall inform you; in his celebrated dictionary he defines lexicography as the art or practice of writing dictionaries.' Now can you tell me the derivation of the word?"—"Graphé means writing?"—"Yes, what does the former part of the word mean?"-"Is it connected with lego or logos?""With both; the original Greek is Lexicon, which, from lego, I speak (logos, a word), may be rendered woord-book."-"I wish word-book' had been in use, I should then have had no difficulty: I like those Saxon compounds, they are so obvious in their import; how much better would word-book have been than dictionary or lexicon: but where is the difference between dictionary and lexicon ?"-" In general there is no difference between them, though dictionary is by usage applied to word-books relating to the English or the Latin, and lexicon is applied to word-books relating to the Greek, the Hebrew, and other learned languages."-"Then, why have we two words?"-"As a matter of fact we have two words, because the English has been supplied with its terms from two languages-the Greek, whence we get lexicon, and the Latin, whence we get dictionary. But we have more than two words which in their general import correspond to Form into a sentence each of these Words with their proper Prepositions. word-book; there is vocabulary from the Latin, and glossary from traho, Idraw contra, opposite versor, I am engaged in verto, I turn vinco, I overcome copie, a transcript To consist of, to consist in, and to consist with, have each a different meaning. To consist of has reference to the materials of which an object is made up; to consist in has reference to the substance or essence of a thought; to consist with has reference to the character or dignity of an agent or actor. It consists with the character of a wise man to expound doctrines in which the welfare of his fellow-men consists: that exposition he makes by words which consist of sounds, or by books which consist of letters. The wealth of a nation consists not so much in the number as the heart, the intelligence, and the sinews of its inhabitants. HISTORICAL THEME. Moses at Mount Horeb. CONVERSATIONS ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR.-No. V. ENGLISH DICTIONARIES. "I suppose, from what you said in our last conversation, that there are several dictionaries of the English language?"—" Yes, there are several."-" Well, then, which am I to choose ?"-" The selection in part depends on the amount of money you can spare for the purpose."-"My stock is small, but I would rather wait until it has increased, than purchase an inferior book."-"Very good, but what should you say to five guineas for a dictionary?""I can afford no such sum; the utmost that my means will allow the Greek: the former from vox, a voice or articulate sound, signifies a list or collection of words with or without their several significations, and is mostly applied either to all the words of a language considered collectively-thus we say, the English is a rich and varied vocabulary;' or to a number of words put together for a certain purpose, be that number smaller or larger-thus, a Latin vocabulary would be a selection of such words as a beginner in the language ought first of all to learn. Glossary is, so to say, a learned book, and denotes a list of terms hard to be understood, selected and given for explanation."-"What is the origin of glossary?"-"It comes from the Greek glossé, or, as the word appears in another form, glotté, which means a tongue, the organ being given for the product of the organ, tha is, word."-"Then glotté is the term we find in polyglott ?"-" Yes, polyglott is from the Greek glotté, tongue, and polys, many, and so signifies a manytongued book; for instance, the Sacred Scriptures in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, German, and English."-"You think highly of Dr. Johnson's dictionary ?"-"Yes."-"Do you not think I eculd procure a copy in an old book-shop for a small sum?" Probably, but though I sometimes go to such places myself in search of book-rarities, I advise you to avoid them. Old books are not good for young students; you will obtain more real, because more true, knowledge in one volume of 'THE POPULAR EDUCATOR,' than, by careful searching and sifting, with years of labour, you could obtain from a shop full of old books; old books are very much like old clothes-they are worn-out; knowledge is ever in movement, undergoes incessant change-what was once thought true is proved and ever on the advance; consequently the sum of knowledge to be false; what was once thought exact, is proved to be inexact; therefore, dictionaries which contain the sum of knowledge in detailed explanations, come in time to be wrong; consequently, old English dictionaries lose, at least, a part of their value as guides to learners. Besides, Dr. Johnson was but imperfectly acquainted with the constituent elements of the English language, and therefore he was not a thoroughly competent etymologist." "To whom, then, are we to look for sound instruction in etymo logy?"-"The science is yet in its infancy; I cannot recommend a wholly satisfactory guide. Dr. Johnson's dictionary was published in 1818, in five quarto volumes, under the editorial care of the Rev. H. J. Todd, who enlarged and improved the original. Yet this work comes not up to the mark. Nor could I recommend as a sufficient etymological guide a very valuable English dic tionary, published in 1844, in two quarto volumes, by Pickering, the author being Charles Richardson, LL.D., who for his unquestionable deserts in this work has lately received a smail pension from the crown. However, by their price, Johnson's and Richardson's dictionaries are beyond your reach.”—“ Again, then, I ask, what dictionary am I to purchase?"-"You may possibly find resources to procure a copy of Webster's; if not, Reid's Die tionary of the English Language, eighth edition, published by Oliver and Boyd, of Edinburgh, which can be had for six shillings and sixpence, would answer your purpose. There are, however, several reprints of both Webster's and Reid's excellent works. danse, dance. AGE AIRE ARE ENCE Exc.-nacre, mother of ASSE pearl. courage, courage. Exc.-image, image; rage, EE rage; page, page of a book; cage, cage; nage, snake-root; pariétaire, ASTRE cadastre, register. Exc.-paume, tennis. by tor ti: abrégé, ESSE abridgment. Exc.-Norvège, Norway. Carpe, wrist (anatomy). Carpe, Cartouche, ornaments (sculp Cartouche, carp. cartrid ge. ture). nassus. nuće, cloud. Couple, Crêpe, Délice (sing.), Espace, delight. Délices (pl.), space. Espace, a pair, a brace,two. pancake. delights. leading (in print ing). (2.) First exception.-Nouns ending in the singular with s, x, | agency which no earthly circumstances could smother; and which, or z, have the same form in the plural: though it long burned dimly, and at times seemed wholly eclipsed, at length burst forth with a brightness which astonished, and continued to burn steadily and usefully for a series of years, till God, who raised him up for great and important purposes, thought fit to remove him to a higher and more glorious sphere. SAMUEL LEE was born at Longnor, near Shrewsbury, May 14, (3.) Second exception.-Nouns ending in the singular with 1783. He was sent to a charity school at Longnor, and remained in au and eu, take z in the plural: it till he was about twelve years of age, receiving the first rudiments of learning, and passing through the course usually pursued at such institutions. It does not appear that he distinguished himself in any respect: he certainly gave no signs of that wards obtained a lasting reputation. (4.) Third exception.-The following nouns ending in ou take remarkable talent for acquiring languages, by which he after* in the plural Singular. bijon, jewel caillou, pebble chou, cabbage genou, knee hibou, owl : joujou, plaything Plural. bijoux, jewels cailloux, pebbles choux, cabbages genoux, knees hiboux, owls joujoux, playthings. On leaving school he was apprenticed to a carpenter, and underwent hardships to which few of his age readily submit, but which he appears to have borne without repining. He was fond of reading, and caught up with eagerness such books as came in his way, either in the house in which he lodged, or in houses to which he was sent to work. Meeting frequently, however, with Latin phrases and quotations which he could not comprehend, (5.) Fourth exception.-The following nouns ending in ail, and the comprehension of which he believed to be essential to the change that termination into aux in the plural: travail, labour full understanding of the passages in which they occurred, he formed a determination to learn the Latin language. He had no one to give him any direction or assistance; but being on his way one day to purchase a new tool or two, he stopped at a book-stall, a temptation he could rarely resist, when he saw a copy of "Ruddiman's Latin Grammar," marked "one shilling." Though he could ill spare a shilling at that time, being much in want of tools, he immediately bought the book, determining upon some acts of self-denial to make up for the temporary loss. On the (6.) Fifth exception. The following nouns form their plural evening of that day he set to work, committed a portion of the irregularly: Plural. aux bestiaux Bercail, sheepfold, has no plural. grammar to memory, and rested not till, by snatching every moment of leisure, he mastered the whole. The next book he purchased was the Colloquies of Corderius, with an English translation in columns opposite to the Latin; this was of great use to him, as was also Entick's Latin and English Dictionary, (7.) Sixth exception.-Nouns ending in the singular with al, which he obtained soon afterwards. To these books he added change that termination into aux in the plural :* THE REV. SAMUEL LEE, D.D. Late Regius Professor of Hebrew and Arabic in the University of Cambridge, Rector of Barley, Canon in Bristol Cathedral, etc. THERE is something in the literary career of this gentleman so remarkable in itself, and so full of encouragement to those who have to struggle with difficulties while endeavouring to obtain knowledge, that we feel much pleasure in bringing before the readers of the Popular Educator, several particulars which we have collected as to his early life. It will be seen that though he received but a scanty education, and was afterwards apprenticed to a humble, though useful mechanical profession; though he began life under circumstances which appeared unfavourable to everything like scientific pursuits, he yet succeeded to attain a height and eminence, to gain which, many, under far more advantageous circumstances, have toiled in vain. The fact is that there was in Samuel Lee a latent spark, kindled by a superior * Bal, ball; carnaval, carnival; chacal, jackal; régal, treat, follow the general rule.1 Clarke's Exercises, and Beza's Latin Testament. With these valuable aids young Lee made some proficiency. By referring to his dictionary and his Corderius, he got at the meaning of a great number of words, but, as may be readily I supposed, he met with many difficulties which he was convinced he could not overcome without the assistance of a master. About this time, falling into the company of a catholic priest, he ventured to ask him for an explanation of some difficulty; the priest, however, dismissed him with a somewhat sharp repulse, saying that charity began at home." He was much mortified, though not discouraged by this uncourteous rebuff. He persevered in his endeavours, unaided as he was, and in about a year after this incident he was able to read the Latin Bible, Florus, some of Cicero's Orations, Caesar's Commentaries, Justin, Sallust, Virgil. Horace's Odes, and Ovid's Epistles. Thus Samuel plodded on, notwithstanding many difficulties and much self-denial, through the remainder of his apprenticeship. His term having expired, he determined to learn the Greek language, and bought-by selling one book as soon as he had mastered its contents, and purchasing another with the moneythe Westminster Greek Grammar, a Greek Testament, and Schrevelius' Lexicon, with the aid of which latter he made some progress. He next obtained Huntingford's Greek Exercises, the whole of which he wrote out; and then, in pursuance of the advice given in the exercises, he read Xenophon's Cyropædia, and soon after Plato's Dialogues, some portion of Homer's Ilisd and Odyssey, Pythagoras' Golden Verses, with the commentary of Hierocles, Lucian's Dialogues of the Dead, and some of the Poeta Minores, with the Antigone of Sophocles. A proof, this, of what can be done when a man is eagerly bent on the accomplishment of an object, and when he is determined to "redeem the time" for that purpose. 8 Lee next directed his attention to the acquisition of Hebrew, and to assist him in this he procured Bythner s Grammar, and his Lyra Prophetica; soon after wads he obtained a Psalter, which he read by the help of the Lyra. He next purchased Buxtorf's Grammar and Lexicon, with a Hebrew Bible. While thus engaged he seemed to be fast approaching the summit of his wishes; but he met with new interruptions to his learned pursuits. A frequent inflammation in his eyes, and every possible discourage BIOGRAPHY. ment from those around him, proved powerful opponents. But | talent of conveying knowledge to others—an art not always habit, and a fixed determination to proceed, had now made study possessed by men of learning. his dearest recreation from manual labour, and he every day returned to it as a source of pleasure. As we have before intimated, he felt many privations in consequence of his arduous application to books, but he was amply repaid by the happiness his pursuits afforded him. In December, 1813, Lee entered Queen's College, Cambridge; where his constantly accumulating acquisitions, his great talents and industry, led to his future advancement and reputation. The principal events in the remainder of Samual Lee's life may be thus briefly narrated 1817. Took the degree of B.A. 1817 and 1818. Superintended the Hindustanee Prayer-book, and the Morning and Evening Prayers in Persic. Wrote the history of the Abyssinian and Syrian churches in the Annual Report of the Missionary Society. 1816. Published his Syriac New Testament, for which he A friend of Samuel Lee's, who had made himself intimately acquainted with Lee's mode of study, has informed us-in the obtained the degree of D.D. from the University of Halle in Saxony. hope that it may stimulate some solitary unbefriended student to The Syriac Old Testament was published in 1823. Editor of the adopt a similar course, that the system pursued by this astonish-Malay Scriptures, the Arabic and Coptic Psalter and Gospels, ing instance of successful self-education in the study of Latin, translator of Genesis into Persian; editor of Martyn's Persian and Greek, and Hebrew, was, the constant exercise of analysis, or Hindustanee Testament. parsing; declining the nouns, adjectives, and pronouns; conjugating the verbs; examining the rules for the genders of the nouns and the tenses of the verbs; and investigating the syntax. About this time Lee met with the Targum of Onkelos; and as he had a Chaldaic Grammar in Bythner's Lyra, with the assistance of that and Schindler's Lexicon, he was soon able to read it, to his great delight. He next proceeded to the Syriac, and read some of Gutber's Testament, by the help of Otho's Synopsis and Schindler's Lexicon. He next looked at the Samaritan, but as the Samaritan Pentateuch differs little from the Hebrew, except in a change of letters, he found no difficulty in reading it in quotations wherever he found them. By this time Lee had attained his twenty-fifth year. He then began to consider whether it would not be necessary for him to relinquish the study of languages and apply himself to something which might be more useful to one in his humble situation. He determined to abandon his favourite pursuits: he sold his books, made new resolutions as to his future course, and took unto himself a wife. That Providence, however, which had designed him to do a great work, interfered, and circumstances induced him to betake himself to study with additional industry and perseverance. His chief property was his chest of carpenter's tools, worth about £25; and his only dependence the use of those tools. A fire broke out and destroyed his tools, and with them his hopes of subsistence. He was cast on the world without a shilling, and It was necessary for him to without a friend to lend him one. pursue some new course, and he resolved upon one in which his former studies might prove advantageous. The occupation of a country schoolmaster seemed most likely to answer his purpose; and to qualify himself for this more fully he applied himself to the study of Murray's English Exercises, and improved himself also in Arithmetic. Still he had no money, and no friend to supply it. At this critical juncture the struggles of this would-be scholar came to the ears of Archdeacon Corbett, who sent for him, ascertained the particulars of his case, and engaged to render him assistance. To the Archdeacon he was indebted for the situation of master of the Blue School, Shrewsbury; and by the same gentleman he was introduced to Dr. Jonathan Scott (translator of the Arabian Nights), who had been secretary to Hastings in India, and Oriental Professor of the Royal Military and East India colleges. In the company of Scott, Lee had, for the first time, an opportunity of conversing upon those arduous pursuits in which he had been so long engaged, and which he had prosecuted under every discouragement, in seclusion, and amidst Dr. the privations of poverty, with such extraordinary success. Scott lent him some books in Arabic, Persian, and Hindustanee, and directed his pronunciation of those tongues. In the course of a few months he was able not only to read and translate from any Arabic or Persian manuscript, but to compose in those languages. He translated into Arabic and Persian several of Dr. Johnson's Oriental Apologues in the Rambler, and Addison's Vision of Mirza in the Spectator, which Dr. Scott pronounced to be "wonderfully well done:" they met also with the approbation of Mr. James Anderson, an oriental scholar of high standing. By perseverance, Lee perfected himself in the knowledge of the languages to which he had before applied himself, adding thereto the knowledge of French and other modern languages. During the period that Lee was master of the charity founda. tion at Shrewsbury, he attended two or more schools as a teacher of arithmetic, and at a few private houses as instructor in Persian and Hindustanee to the sons of gentlemen who were in expectation of appointments in the civil or military service of the Hon. East India Company; and the progress made by his pupils proved that, in those days as well as in after life, he had the 1819. Elected Professor of Arabic, and the degree of M.A. conferred upon him by Royal mandate. 1820. Grammar and Vocabulary of the New Zealand language. 1821. Syloge Librorum Orientalium, and Letter to Bellamy against his translation of the Bible. 1823. Elec ed chaplain of the gaol, Cambridge. 1824 to 1826. His Controversy with Dr. Henderson, and edited Sir W. Jones's Persian Grammar; the second edition of this gram 1824. Controversial tracts on Christianity and Mohammedanism, mar, in 1828, is in fact a new work. by Martyn. 1827. Took the degree of B.D. 1831. Elected Regius Professor of Hebrew, and Prebendary of Bristol. This preferment was bestowed upon him by Lord Brougham, then Lord Chancellor. In this year he commenced a course of lectures on the Hebrew Scriptures, which he continued for the space of about three years. 1832. Published his Hebrew Grammar; a volume containing Sermons and Dissertations on Theological subjects, and an orignal to Bagster's Polyglot Bible. Exposition of the Book of Revelation; and the Latin Prolegomena Created 1823. The Travels of Ibn Batuta, translated from the Arabic, for which he obtained one of the King's golden medals. D.D.; at his creation a high encomium was passed upon him by Dr. Turton, Regius Professor of Divinity, in an elegant Lin Oration. A Controversy with Mr. Joseph Storrs Fry, of Bristol, on the Tithe Question. 1834. Sermon on the Primitive Sabbath, and Letter to Dr. Pye Smith, on Dissent. 1837. Book of the Patriarch Job. 1840. Visitation Sermon, containing a reply to Dr. Wiseman, on Hebrew and English Dictionary; of this last we may say that it is, the Eucharist, as held by the Syrian Church. In February, his omnium facile princeps. It would occupy far too large a space to enumerate all the pubIn addition to the Prebend lications of Dr. Lee; by which he rendered service alike to the Christian Church and to the world. of Bristol Cathedral, he held the Rectory of Barley; to the pastoral duties of which he attended with much punctuality, at the same time rendering all possible service to the Bible and Missionary Societies. Although his great genius was convertible to almost any purpose, he devoted himself chiefly to the study of the word of God; his highest ambition being, as far as we can judge, to obtain a thorough knowledge of that word himself, and to be able to make it known to his fellow-creatures. Though he had opportunities of attaining the highest eminence as a linguist or mathematician, he chose rather the sacred office of a minister of Christ, and as he had acquired the knowledge of so many of the languages of "the babbling earth," he determined that the nations with whose languages he had become familiar, should read, "in their own tongues, the wonderful works of God." Dr. Lee was amiable in his general conduct, and his whole career furnishes one of the most signal and brilliant instances of the acquirement or knowledge under difficulties that we have upon Rectory, Herts, at the usual age allotted to mankind in the prayer record. This eminent man died in December last, at Barley of Moses, the man of God, which he wrote on reviewing the history of those whose carcasses fell in the wilderness, and whose wanderings were a fit emblem of human life: "The days of our years are three-score years and ten." And well may it be added from the apostle James, "What is your life? It is even vapour that appeareth for a little time, and then vanisheth away." |