adjectivals in co-ordinating attributes [§ 77]; and the adverbials in what were simply adverbials limiting the asserted Existence, usually in respect of place. For example, as But as now generally used, these verbs are mere links or Copulas uniting the Subject to the Complement. And the copula and complement with its belongings, taken together, form the grammatical1 predicate. For more on this, see § 22. We have thus three great classes of complements, viz. 1. Substantivals as Complementary apposites. The following is an almost exhaustive series of illustrations, arranged in connection with the lists of substantivals, adjectivals, and adverbials contained in § 30. 1 The logical predicate answers to a substantival complement and its belongings without the copula. See § 5. Obs. 1.-The above sequence of the subj. cop. and comp. is by no means fixed, e.g.— There (comp.) is (cop.) a cow (subj.) Obs. 2.-The most curious of all the adverbial complements is the Thus, local adverb 'There.' United with the copula it is equivalent to a predication of Existence, and especially of a definite local Existence. There is a strange tale that the monks, &c.' 'A strange tale exists, viz. that the monks, &c.' 'There is a cow in the field' = = 'A cow exists in the field.' Obs. 3.-Although it is of importance for the student to observe that many of our tenses [§ 19] consist of a copula and complement, yet he will do well in his analysis to treat such periphrastic combinations as if they formed a single word. Obs. 4.-The Infinitive and Gerund of the copula verb, i.e. to be and being, may appear as subject, copula, or complement; but it is well to leave the consideration of this to the sections devoted to the full consideration of these verbal nouns; see §§ 57-64. : 40. By the Cognate Object of a Verb' grammarians generally mean an object consisting of the noun contained in the verb but in our analysis we shall extend the term so as to give it a syntactical as well as an etymological value. Every verb contains a noun, inasmuch as we can always name the act or state which is predicated by a verb. "noun of the verb" can always be expressed by a verbal-noun, and not infrequently by what is merely a noun. This Thus the 1 The adjective' worth' is completed by a cognate object, see § 66. But a contained noun, like any other noun, may have an apposite. Thus the apposite of a sleep may be the sleep of death. Such apposites, like all other apposites, have the effect of limiting the noun's range of application. Hence if they be added to the verb, in which the noun is still embedded, they have the immediate effect of limiting the verb's range of application. And the substantival, which would stand in apposition to the contained noun if it were extracted from the verb, is called the Cognate Object in this book, although the name is also applied in a stricter sense to an object consisting of the contained noun itself, e.g. 'I have fought the fight.' A cognate object may occur after any kind of verb-active passive or neuter-transitive or intransitive, e.g. He struck the horse [direct object] a blow [cognate object]. He sang a ballad [cog. obj.]. He ran a race [cog. obj.]. He slept the-sleep-of-the-just [cog. obj.]. The cognate object of an active verb is frequently used as the subject of the passive verb. Such a construction is quite grammatical, but very illogical, as a single example will show. 1 'To teach' = to cause to learn, to instruct, and is properly followed by a direct object; but, if it means 'to give information,' then it will be completed by an indirect (dat.) object, e.g. 'Music was taught to him.' The direct is, however, the standard construction, and is to be seen in O. E., where the verb 'læran' to teach, takes the acc. of the person taught. 1 Thus, when we say 'Music was taught,' we speak good grammar and are understood; but we have nevertheless said what is logically absurd, inasmuch as it was not the Music which was instructed, but certain unnamed Pupils, who alone could form the logical subject of the passive verb. The same illogical character may be detected, although less readily, in such sentences as, 'The race was run'; 'A song was sung'; 'A sermon was preached'; 'A story was related'; 'That he still lived was asserted'; 'That he should go was commanded'; 'How they marched was enquired'; inasmuch as none of these grammatically passive subjects are really being acted upon, but rather are themselves the action, for Obs.-The test question, which best serves to distinguish the Cognate object from all other objects, is, Does it tell in what the contained noun consists? Thus, in 'He sang a hymn,' 'He played a waltz,' 'He ran a race,' 'He learned grammar,' 'He taught music,' 'He constructed a box,' 'He does love,' 'He said that you were here,' 'He begged that you would go,' 'He asked how you were,' the words and clauses placed in italics are all cognate objects, for we can say— |