Hypothetical. I ask "May I go, if—?" I asked "Would he go, if—?" Hypothetical. I ask whether I may go, if— I asked whether he would go, if—. Obs. 1.-The construction of all Main Clauses is direct, and the construction of all Noun Clauses is oblique. But this established usage is sometimes so completely transgressed that we find (a) an oblique construction used for a direct, and (B) a direct for an oblique, e.g. (a) “Paul whispered [to] Florence, as she wrapped him up before the door was opened. Did she hear them? Would she ever forget it? Was she glad to know it?" (Dickens) where the direct forms, 'Do you hear them? Will you ever forget it? Are you glad to know it?' ought to have been used; (B) "And he answered that the people are fled," (A.V.) where the oblique form that the people were fled' ought to have been used. Obs. 2.—As a rule the tense used in the oblique construction is primary or historic [19], according to the nature of the tense of the verb on which the oblique clause depends, and not at all according to the nature of the tense used in the corresponding direct construction. From this we see that if the main verb be historic, the dependent oblique clause will also be historic, whether the direct construction be historic or primary. Thus, the tenses and moods possess a much more limited range in the oblique, than in the direct construction. For example, in the sentence 'She said that he would go,' it is quite impossible for us to tell whether ‘— he would go ' represents a direct construction in the Fut. Indic., or one in the Simple Potential; i.e. whether it represents, 'He will go,' or 'He would go.' Obs. 3.-Although the direct petition is necessarily confined to the 2nd person, yet our wishes are often expressed directly as to the 1st and 3rd persons. This is done under the form of an assertion or question, as 'He is to go!' 'Might I come?' In the oblique construction both of these may however be represented by petitions, thus I ordered that he should go,' and 'I begged that I might come.' 35. The Classification of Sentences in this book is as follows: : A Primary Sentence or Clause is one which contains no more than is essential to the expression of a bare thought. A Simple Sentence contains one primary sentence, with any accidental additions except subordinate clauses. A Complex Sentence contains one primary sentence with accidental additions consisting of one or more subordinate clauses. A Compound Sentence contains two or more primary clauses co-ordinated together. The examination of these four classes of sentences is to be found in the following sections :— THE PRIMARY SENTENCE. 36. The Primary Sentence is the nucleus, kernel, or skeleton, around which even the most expanded simple or complex sentence is formed; and in consequence it exhibits nothing which is not really essential to the complete expression of a thought. In short, a Primary Sentence is one which is stripped bare of every accidental addition. The very first step, in analyzing the most expanded sentence, is to distinguish the primary sentence or sentences as they lie embedded amidst the mass of words, phrases, and clauses, which directly or remotely attach to their component parts. The following sentences are Primary, inasmuch as no separate word, phrase, or clause, can be omitted, without making us sensible that something is wanted, in order to express a complete thought. 'He runs'; 'He is king'; 'He is wise'; 'He is in difficulties'; 'He ate bread'; 'He gave books to her'; 'He said that the ship had sailed'; 'He begged that the poor old man might be spared'; 'He asked who was at home'; 'That he escaped is certain'; 'To tell lies is contemptible'; 'Studying art improves taste.' THE SUBJECT OF ANY SENTence. 37. Anything which has, or can be regarded as having, an absolute [i.e. an independent] existence is a substantival. But whatever exists can be spoken of as doing or being something. Hence the Subject of a sentence is a substantival; and conversely whatever can form the subject of a sentence is a substantival. A list of substantivals has already been given in § 30, so that it E is only necessary now to give some illustrations of the various Obs. 1.-The subject of a sentence is usually omitted in exclamations and commands. In the former the subject is the first person, as '[I] would that they were here!' In the latter the second person, as 'Look [thou],' Read [thou] it,'' Depart [ye].' = = = Obs. 2. Methinks' and 'Methought' are constructions which call for explanation, as almost every one regards them as peculiar forms of 'I think' and 'I thought,'—which is not the case. 'I think' is from the O.E. þencan to think; whereas 'Methinks' is from the O. E. impersonal verb þyncan = to seem, to appear, which was constructed with a dative = Hence Methinks' pronoun. in O.E. 'Me pynco' in Latin 'Mihi videtur ' in Modern English appears to me'; and 'Methought' 'Me þúhte': = 'Mihi visum est' = '-appeared to me.' Thus in such sentences as 'Methought I returned to the great hall,' (Addison) and 'Me thinke I coulde gesse what myghte be sayed,' (Bp. Latimer) we shall take 'Me' as an Indirect object, discharging a dative function; and the Oblique clauses 'I returned, &c.' and 'I coulde gesse, &c.' as the Subjects of the two sentences. = = Obs. 3.—When used exclusively as a substantival, the Infinitive is not a prepositional phrase ; inasmuch as the 'to' is nothing more than a mark, save when the infinitive discharges an adverbial function. THE PREDICATE OF A PRIMARY SENTENCE. 38. A grammatical Predicate is that which asserts what the subject of a sentence does or is. The only word, which can without assistance form a predicate, is a finite Verb: and no grammatical predicate can be formed without a finite verb. Hence the most elementary type of predicate is one consisting of a verb with nothing added, as The boy runs. There are however many verbs [and also their Verbal-nouns and Verbal-adjectives], which, in some or all of their various shades of meaning, imply too little or too much to be capable of fully expressing a thought [i.e. of forming a primary predicate] without some addition. When verbs are deficient in meaning, they require Complements; when they suggest or imply more than they themselves express, they require Objects of various kinds. There are however so many and such delicate variations of meaning in many verbs, that it is often difficult or even impossible to determine with certainty the particular classes of objects which are logically appropriate to the said verbs. This degree of uncertainty, as to classification, is nevertheless shared by grammar with every other natural science. The many instances of uncertainty, which appear from § 40 to § 56, should serve, not only to illustrate the fact that grammar is an inexact science, but should also prepare the student to understand how it is that other languages have produced constructions differing from his own. 6 39. Complements are generally used after such verbs as 'Be,' 'Am,' 'Was,' 'Become,' 'Stand,''Continue, Remain,' &c., which verbs, having formerly predicated the existence of the subject, can now be used without predicating anything at all. When these verbs make no predication, they require to be complemented by substantivals, adjectivals, or adverbials, whose original nature appears as soon as we restore to the verb its original meaning. Thus, the substantivals are found to have originated in co-ordinating apposites [§ 73]; the |