of Condé and the dukes of Lorraine, Savoy, and Modena, and the prince of Monaco (the two first especially), were left in statu quo. In consequence of this peace, Louis XIV married Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of Philip IV, who, in 1660, renounced all right of inheritance to the Spanish throne. Louis XIV, however, afterwards made pretensions to this right, from which arose the devolution war, and the war of the Spanish succession. (See Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of, and Utrecht, Peace of.)

PYRITES; a genus of inflammable substances, composed of sulphur, which has dissolved or saturated itself with metals.

PYRMONT, OF NEUSTADT PYRMONT; a town in the principality of Waldeck, situated in a pleasant valley on the Emmer, thirty-three miles south-west of Hanover. It is well built, with delightful walks, and is famous for its thermal waters, which are yearly visited by 1800 strangers. The waters are saline. (See Mineral Waters.) In the vicinity are the ruins of the old castle of Pyrmont, or Schellpyrmont, and the cave called Dunsthöhle, from which issues carbonic acid gas. There is also here a colony of Quakers, called Friedensthal (Vale of Peace).

PYROCHLORE; a mineral recently detected in the zircon sienite of Fredericksværn, in Norway. It occurs crystal lized in regular octahedrons; specific gravity, 4.2; scratches fluor; streak brown; fracture conchoidal, without any trace of cleavage; lustre between vitreous and resinous. Its color is reddish brown, and on the fresh surface almost black; in thin splinters, translucent. It consists of titanic acid 62.75, lime 12.85, oxide of uranium 5.18, oxide of cerium 6.80, oxide of manganese 2.75, oxide of iron 2.16, oxide of zinc 0.61, water 4.2, fluoric acid undetermined, and magnesia a trace.

PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. (See Vinegar.) PYROMETER; an instrument for the measurement of temperatures above those which we are able to estimate by the mercurial thermometer. Mercury boils at 660°, above which point it is incapable of measuring heats; although many temperatures connected with the most common processes are greatly above this point, as, for example, the heat of a common fire, the melting point of silver, copper, and gold. The first pyrometer was that invented by Mr. Wedgewood. It consisted of small pieces of clay from Cornwall, moulded into cylinders of a determinate size, and baked in a low red heat. These pieces were of just such a size as to enter

between two square brass rods, fixed on brass plate twenty-four inches long, be an inch asunder at one extremity, and C inch at the other. The brass rods w divided into inches and tenths, making all 240 divisions, or degrees. When pie of clay, baked in Wedgewood's manna are exposed to heat, they shrink in the dimensions, and the degree of shrink was believed to be proportional to temperature. This was the foundation his instrument. The heat to which t piece of clay was exposed was indicate when its shrinkage was measured tween the brass rods. If exposed to t heat at which silver melts, it advan between the brass rods to 22°, or 4 inches; if to the melting point of gold, 32°; and if to the melting point of ca iron, to 130°; and so on. But this p rometer of Wedgewood has been le laid aside, in consequence of the observ tion, that if a piece of this clay was le exposed to a low temperature, it shra as much in its dimensions as if it t been exposed for a short time to a me higher temperature. In 1803, Guytor Morveau presented to the French is tute a pyrometer of platina, which mess ured high temperatures by the expans of this refractory metal. An improv ment of this instrument was brought ward by Mr. Daniel in 1821, which com sisted of a bar of platina 10 inches l and 0.14 inch in diameter. It is placed a tube of black lead or earthen ware, a the difference between the expansion the platina bar and the earthen ware t is indicated on a circular scale. This rometer indicates a change of about 7 Fahrenheit; or, in other words, 1° of iel is equal to 7° of Fahrenheit. The lowing are some of the results obtain by this instrument: Boiling point of mercury, Fusing point of tin,

Daniel. 92° 64

63

41

bismuth,

66

that given out by alcohol. It burns all away, without leaving any residue, and the only products are carbonic acid and water. It dissolves in alcohol in any proportion. With water it becomes opaque, owing, probably, to a small quantity of oil it still contains. It dissolves readily in oil of turpentine, and in liquid potash, acquiring, at the same time, a yellowish color. When the solution of this spirit in potash is distilled, we are able to obtain it perfectly pure from every portion of oil. When this spirit is mixed with nitric acid and distilled, an ethereal liquid comes over, possessed of an exceedingly pungent smell, and acting strongly on the nose and eyes. It burns with a bluish flame. The specific gravity of this vapor is 1.94.

PYRRHA. (See Deucalion.) PYRRHICHIUS. (See Rhythm.) PYRRHO, a Grecian philosopher of Elis, founder of the Pyrrhonian or ancient sceptical school, flourished about 340 B. C., and was probably born about the 101st Olympiad. In his youth he studied the art of painting, but was early led to apply himself to philosophy by the writings of Democritus. He accompanied his master, Anaxarchus, to India, in the train of Alexander the Great. During this journey, he became acquainted with the doctrines of the Brahmins, Gymnosophists, Magi, and other Eastern philosophers. His doubts concerning positive knowledge (or his scepticisin) were strengthened as he proceeded in his studies, until at length he came to hold all knowledge useless, and considered virtue alone as valuable. In all disputes, his answer to his opponents was, "What you say may, or may not, be true; I cannot decide;" and he taught in his school, that truth could not be attained, but we must be content to suspend our judgment on all subjects. He spent a great part of his life in solitude, and, by abstaining from all decided opinions (inox) concerning moral and physical phenomena, he endeavored to attain a state of tranquillity not to be affected by fear, joy or sorrow. He bore corporal pains with great fortitude, and no danger could disturb his equanimity. In disputation, he was distinguished for acuteness of argument and clearness of language. His countrymen made him high priest, and exempted all philosophers from the payment of taxes. Pyrrho died in the ninetieth year of his age. The Athenians erected a statue in honor of him, and his countrymen raised a monument to his memory. His scepticism is easily accounted for. He early became acquainted

with the system of Democritus, who bel that, except the immediate elements of bodies (atoms), nothing was real, and the all perception was subjective. (See ( jective.) He was confirmed in these views by the doctrines of Socrates, whom, in his character, he bore a great resemblance. Cicero mentions him et pressly among the disciples of Socrates and his scepticism is allied to the irony of that philosopher. Led, by his tempere ment and his manner of life, to esteem a uninterrupted tranquillity the great objec of all philosophy, believing that nothing tended so much to destroy this quiet as the interminable disputes of the schoo of the Dogmatists, and that uncertainty was increased by their contentions, he determined to seek, in some other way, the peace which he despaired of finding a dogmatical philosophy. This made hin a sceptic. Pyrrho left no writings. His friend and scholar, Timon, first wrote ut the subject of scepticism, but his writings are lost. It is only from the works of h later followers, particularly Sextus ELpiricus, that we learn the principles of his school, or rather their mode of thinking. by which they strove rather to overthrow other philosophical structures, than to build up one of their own.-A disposition to doubt is often called, from this philosopher, pyrrhonism.

PYRRHUS; son of Achilles and Iphige nia, whom his father, after the sacrifice of Iphigenia, carried to Scyros, and gave to Deidamia. Others say that Dedamia, daughter of Lycomedes, was l mother. He was educated at Seyr and remained there till after his father's death, when Ulysses and Diomedes took him away, because Calchas had declared, that without him Troy could not be taken. He now received the name et Neoptolemus, on account of his engaging in war so young. Homer describes hin as beautiful, eloquent and fearless. T post-Homeric poets ascribe to him the sacrifice of Polyxena on the tomb of lus father, the carrying off of Philoctetes from Lemnos, and the death of Polites and Priam. Andromache and Helenus fell te his share among the captives. Later accounts differ very much. Some say that he returned by land; others, by water. According to some, he went to Epirs among the Molossi, and there founded a new kingdom. Here Andromache be came his wife, by whom he had Molossus, Pierus and Pergamus, and, at length, leż his wife and his kingdom to Helenas whom he honored as a soothsayer. He

then appears in a new mythological series of events, the basis of which is to be found in Homer. He is represented to have married Hermione, whoin her father, Menelaus, had betrothed to him before Troy. On this account he was, according to some, murdered by Orestes, the former husband of Hermione, at the altar of Apollo. According to others, his death was occasioned by Apollo, whom he had offended. It is generally agreed, that his death took place at Delphi. Here his grave was shown, and a yearly sacrifice was offered in honor of him.

PYRRHUS II, king of Epirus, B. C. 300, was one of the greatest generals of his age, ambitious of fame and conquest. He ascended the throne of his father when but twelve years old: being driven from it, five years afterwards, by Neoptolemus, be soon regained it, and increased his power by the conquest of Macedonia. Being called by the Tarentines (see Tarentum) to aid them against the Romans, he twice defeated the latter by means of his elephants, to which the Romans were unaccustomed; but his confession, "Such another victory, and I must go home alone," proved the cost of his triumph. In the mean time, the disturbances in Syracuse tempted him into Sicily. But he returned to Italy, without having accomplished his vain scheme of conquest; and being here defeated by the Romans, who had now become acquainted with his mode of fighting, he was obliged to return to Greece, without having succeeded in his designs. A tile, at the siege of Argos, ended his restless life (272 B. C.). From this king the Romans learned most of their art of war, which afterwards made them so formidable to their enemies. (See Fabricius.)

PYTHAGORAS; a Grecian philosopher, founder of the Italian school. According to the most received opinion, he was a native of Samos. His father, Mnesarchus, was a merchant (probably of Tyre or some other Phoenician city), who traded to Samos, where he received the rights of citizenship, and settled with his family. The year of Pythagoras's birth is uncertain; probably it took place about 584 or 586 B. C. His history is mingled with many fables. He received his first instruction from Creophilus in his native city. He then went to the island of Scyros, and was a scholar of Pherecydes till the death of the latter; others make him also a scholar of Thales. Jamblichus says, that Pythagoras, during his journey to Egypt, spent some time in Phoenicia in intercourse with the succes

sors of Moschus and other priests of the country, by whom he was initiated into their mysteries, and that he travelled through various parts of Syria, in order to become acquainted with the most important religious usages and doctrines. But this account is blended with many fabulous circumstances. Pythagoras is said to have been recommended by Polycrates, king of Samos, to the Egyptian king Amasis. In Egypt he was probably initiated into the mysteries of the priests, and became acquainted with the whole range of Egyptian learning. From Egypt he is said to have journeyed to the East, and visited the Persian and Chaldean Magi, as well as the Indian Gymnosophists. After his return, he opened a school at Samos, in which he taught his doctrines in a symbolic form, in imitation of the Egyptians. Tradition, moreover, relates that he went to Delos, and received from the priestess moral maxims, which he communicated to his disciples under the name of divine precepts. He also visited Crete, where the priests of Cybele took him to the caverns of Ida, in which Jupiter had been cradled, and where his grave was pretended to be shown. Here he met Epimenides, who boasted of having intercourse with gods and the gift of prophecy, and whom he initiated into the sacred mysteries of the Greeks. From Crete he is said to have gone to Sparta and Elis, and from thence to Phlius, where, being asked by king Leon what was his profession, he replied that he was a philosopher (or friend of wisdom), declaring that the name of sage (sophos) belonged solely to the Divinity. With augmented knowledge he returned home, where he now founded a philosophical school with great success. His doctrines seemed divine oracles; and the sacred obscurity in which he had the art of veiling them, attracted a great number of disciples. He resolved, nevertheless, to leave Samos, either to avoid the public offices conferred upon him, or the tyranny of Polycrates, and went to Magna Græcia. He landed at Crotona, whose inhabitants were notorious for the looseness of their manners. From all traditions it may be concluded, that he laid claim to supernatural powers, and his extraordinary qualities collected around him persons of all classes. The good effects of his influence were soon visible. Sobriety and temperance succeeded to the prevailing luxury and licentiousness. Six hundred of the inhabitants of Crotona are said to have submitted to the strictest precepts of his

doctrine, and united their property in one common stock, for the benefit of the whole community or society which Pythagoras founded. The object of the society was to aid each other in promoting intellectual cultivation. From all quarters Pythagoras found numerous pupils, who paid him almost divine honors. But as he taught the nobles, who joined him, his society . became suspected by the popular party. At the head of his enemies in Crotona was Cylon, a rich and respectable citizen, whose enmity he had excited by refusing to receive him among his scholars. In revenge, Cylon once attacked the house of Milo, where a number of Pythagoreans were assembled, surrounded it with his partisans, and set it on fire. Forty persons perished, and but few escaped. Pythagoras was probably not in the house. He fled to the Locrians, and, when these refused to receive him, to Metapontum. Finding enemies here also, who meditated his ruin, he sought an asylum in the temple of the Muses, where, according to tradition, he perished from want of sustenance, eighty years of age (about 506 B. C.). His scholars are said to have paid him divine honors after his death. He is said to have asserted, that his soul had already lived in several bodies. In public he appeared in the Oriental costume, in a long white robe, with a flowing beard, and, as some say, with a crown of gold on his head. His exterior was grave, commanding, and dignified. He abstained, it is related, from all animal food, and limited himself to vegetables, not, however, eating beans. These circumstances contributed to give him the appearance of an extraordinary being. To show his respect for marriage, he took a wife at Crotona, by whom, among several children, he had two sons, Telanges and Mnesarchus, who were his scholars and successors. That Pythagoras left any works, is improbable on the testimony of the ancients. The Golden Sentences, extant under his name, which may be considered as a short abridgment of his popular doctrines, appear to have been composed by later hands. Like those of the Egyptian priests, his doctrines were of two kinds, public and secret. His public instruction consisted of practical discourses, in which he recommended virtue and dissuaded from vice, with a particular reference to the various relations of mankind, such as those of husbands and wives, parents and children, citizens and magistrates, &c. His hearers at these lectures must not be confounded with the members of his so

ciety, whom he subjected to a separate discipline, and not till after long instru tion and severe examination admitted t all the mysteries of his secret doctrines These scholars were required to practis the greatest purity and simplicity of mat ners. He imposed upon them a silence of two to five years, according to circulstances (the Pythagorean silence). For a time, the disciples were only hearers. The well-known "He said so (avros ipa)" wz sufficient authority, without any proof He alone, who had passed through the appointed series of severe trials, was a lowed to hear the word of the master in his immediate presence. Whoever was terrified by the difficulties, might wit draw without opposition, and his conbutions to the common stock were repa a tomb was erected to him as if he wer dead, and he was no more thought of To the members of the secret society, the doctrines were not delivered, as to others, under the mask of images and symbo but unveiled. These secrets probably related to religious and political subjects It was requisite, however, to take an oa of secrecy. The pupils could now inter rogate and make objections. They wen called, by way of distinction, Pythagoreans As soon as his disciples had made sufcient progress in geometry, they wen introduced to the study of nature, to the investigation of fundamental principis, and to the knowledge of God. Others, according to their inclinations and capac ties, were instructed in morals, econo ics, or politics, and afterwards employ either in managing the affairs of the son ety, or sent abroad to inculcate and bri into practice the principles of philosop and government in the other Greci cities. According to the accounts f later writers, the mode of living at t Pythagorean school at Crotona, was following: The Pythagoreans, with the wives and children, lived together in public building, in perfect harmony, as i' one family. Each morning it was de cided how the day should be spent, a every evening a review was made of that had been done. They rose befor the sun, in order to worship it; verses from Homer and other poets were the recited, or music was introduced, to arous the mental powers, and fit them for u duties of the day. Several hours wes then spent in serious study. A pa followed for recreation, in which a solitary walk was usually taken, to indulge contemplation; a conversation then to place. Before dinner, various gymnast