of the greatest commercial cities of Europe; but it suffered much by that event. In 1648, at the treaty of Westphalia, it was stipulated by Spain and Holland, that the navigation of the Scheldt should be shut up; a stipulation which was observed till the occupation of Belgium by the French, when it was abolished. In 1803, the improvement of the harbour was begun, and extensive new docks and warehouses have since been constructed. Ships of the largest burden come up to the town, and goods destined for the interior are forwarded with the greatest facility by means of canals. Almost all the foreign trade of Belgium is at present centred in Antwerp, which has again become a place of great commercial importance. By a decree issued in 1814, all goods are allowed to be warehoused in Antwerp en entrepôt, and may be exported on paying a charge of per cent. ad valorem. The exports chiefly consist of corn, seeds, linen, lace, carpets, flax, tallow, hops, &c. The imports principally consist of cotton, wine, hardware, sugar, tobacco, coffee, and all sorts of colonial produce.

Money.-Accounts are now commonly kept in florins of 1816, worth 1s. 8d. sterling. The florin is divided into 20 sous, and the sou into 5 cents. Formerly accounts were kept in the pound Flemish = 24 rix dollars 6 florins 20 schillings = 120 stivers = 240 groats = 1,920 pennings.-(See TABLE OF COINS.) The par of exchange between Antwerp and London is 11 florins 58 cents per pound sterling. Weights and Measures.-By a law of 1816, the French system of weights and measures was adopted in the Netherlands on the 1st of January, 1820; but the old denominations are retained. The pond is the unit of weight, and answers to the French kilogramme.-(See AMSTERDAM.)

Of the old weights, which are still occasionally referred to, the quintal of 100 lbs. is equal to 103} lbs. avoirdupois, 100 lbs. avoirdupois being consequently equal to 96'8 lbs. of Antwerp. A schippound is equal to 3 quintals, or 300 lbs.; a stone is equal to 8 lbs.

Of the old measures, a viertel of corn 4 macken; 371 viertels = last; and 40 viertels = 10) Imperial quarters very nearly. The aam of wine contains 50 stoopen, or 361 English wine gallons. Of the weights and medures now current, 50 lbs. 112 lbs. English; 100 lbs. = 100 kilogrammes of France, or 212 Antwerp old weight. One barrel = 26) gallons English 100 litres French.

Custom-house Regulations.-Captains of ships arriving at Antwerp, or any of the Belgian ports, must make, within 24 hours, a declaration in writing, of the goods of which their cargo consists; specifying the marks and numbers of the bales, parcels, &c.; their value, according to the current price at the time when the declaration is made; the name of the ship or vessel, as well as that of the captain, and of the country to which she belongs, &c.

Shipping-The ships entering the port of Antwerp, during the five years ending with 1828, have been as follows:

Of the 800 ships entering Antwerp in 1825, 114 were from Liverpool, 119 from London, 44 from Hull, 48 from Havre, 41 from Bordeaux, 24 from Petersburgh, 24 from New York, 25 from Cuba, 26 from Río Janeiro, 11 from Batavia, &c.--(Bulletin des Sciences Geographiques, for January, 1829, and February 1826.)

The commerce of Antwerp suffered much, in 1831 and 1832, from the hostilities between the Belgians and Dutch. In 1831, there were only 388 arrivals of foreign ships.

Comparative statement of the Imports of the undermentioned Goods, at Antwerp, since 1827, and of the Stocks at the Close of each year.

In the Imports of 1831 and 1832, are included those received through Ostend which were destined for this port. The stocks of these goods now at Ostend, or on their way thence, are also included. The following goods were imported at Antwerp in 1832 from all places:

Conditions under which Goods are sold.—On goods generally 2 per cent. is allowed for payment in 20 days, and 1 per cent. on credit of 6 weeks or 2 months. On cottons, at 20 days' credit, 3 per cent. are allowed, and 14 per cent. on a credit of 2 or 3 months. On ashes, hides, and sugar, 3 per cent. for 20 days, and 14 per cent. for 3 months' credit.

Tares.-West India, Brazil, and Java coffee, in single bags, 2 per cent., and Havannah in joncs, è lb. per bag extra. Bourbon, in whole bags, 44 lbs., and indo. 2 lbs. Pimento, pepper, and ginger in bags, 2 per cent.; on these articles, as also coffee, in casks and barrels, real tare. Cassia lignea, and cinnamon in bales, 10 per cent.; and in chests, 6 to 64 lbs. per chest. Ashes, 12 per cent. Quercitron bark, 10 per cent. Cotton in bales, 4 per cent., exclusive of ropes; and in serons, 6 lbs. per seron. Horse hair, real tare. Indigo, in chests or barrels, real tare; and in serons, 6 to 7 lbs. per seron. Rice, in casks, 12 per cent.; and in bags, 2 per cent. Muscovado sugars, in casks and barrels, and Havannah clayed, in boxes, 14 per cent.; Brazil, in chests, 16 per cent.; Java in canisters and baskets, 9 per cent.; Siam and Manilla, in bags, 3 per cent.; Bengal, in triple bags, 5lbs. each: Bourbon, in mats, 6 per cent. Bohea tea, exclusive of wrappers, 46 lbs. per chest, 24 lbs. per ditto, and 13 lbs. per ditto, 14 lbs. perditto; fine black and green tea, 12 to 13 lbs. per chest, 9 lbs. per 1-6th ditto, 7 lbs. per ditto, 5 lbs per 1-12th ditto, 3 lbs. per 1-16th ditto, and 2 per cent. in boxes. Tobacco, real tare: no draft or other deduction allowed.-(From the Circular of Jollie, Clibbørn, and Co.)

[Our imports from Belgium, although they have been steadily on the increase, are not of much moment. Their annual value, taking the average of five years, amounts to no more than about 330,000 dollars; which is only a fourth part of the value of the exports from the United States to that country. Few of the products of Belgium can compete in our markets with the similar products of England, France, or Germany.

The principal article imported by us from Antwerp is firearms, and these chiefly, if not exclusively, fowling pieces and pistols, manufactured at Liege. Zinc, for roofing, is another article which may deserve to be mentioned. Although dearer than that imported from Hamburg, and which is brought to that place from Silesia, it is preferred to the latter, on account of its superior pliability. To these articles may be added linseed oil, window glass, and cloths and kersimeres, the finest descriptions of which are manufactured at Vervins. Brussels and Mechlin laces come to us also from Antwerp, but only to an inconsiderable amount.

We export to Belgium cotton, pot and pearl ash, coffee, tobacco, whale and other fish oil, raw hides, &c.-Am. Ed.]

APPLES, the fruit of the Pyrus Malus, or apple tree. It is very extensively cultivated in most temperate climates. An immense variety and quantity of excellent apples are raised in England, partly for the table, and partly for manufacturing into cider. Those employed for the latter purpose are comparatively harsh and austere. The principal cider counties are Hereford, Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, Somerset, and Devon. Mr. Marshall calculates the produce of the first four at 30,000 hhds. a year, of which Worcester is supposed to sup ply 10,000. Half a hogshead of cider may be expected, in ordinarily favourable seasons, from each tree in an orchard in full bearing. The number of trees on an acre varies from 10 to 40, so that the quantity of cider must vary in the same proportion, that is, from 5 to 20 hhds. The produce is, however, very fluctuating; and a good crop seldom occurs above once in three years.—(Loudon's Encyc. of Agriculture, &c.)

Besides the immense consumption of native apples, we import, for the table, considerable supplies of French and American apples, especially the former; the entries of foreign apples for home consumption having amounted, at an average of the three years ending with 1831, to 36,012 bushels a year. Were it not for the oppressive duty of 4s. a bushel, there can be little doubt that the imports would be decidedly larger. The apples produced in the vicinity of New York are universally admitted to be the finest of any; but unless selected and packed with care, they are very apt to spoil before reaching England. The exports of apples from the United States during the year ended the 30th of September, 1832, amounted to 6,928 barrels, valued at 15,314 dollars. Of these, 1,370 barrels were shipped for England.—(Papers published by the Board of Trade, p. 106.; Papers laid before Congress, 15th of February, 1833.)

(Duty on apples reduced from 4s. to 2s, a bushel.-(4 & 5 Will. 4. e. 89. § 15.)—Sup.) [The apples in most esteem are the various sorts of pippins; and the best of these are produced in New York and New Jersey. From an average of four years, ending in 1837, the annual export of apples from the United States may be stated to amount to 19,462 barrels, valued at 35,866 dollars. Of this quantity, 3,237 barrels were shipped for England; 6,782 wore sent to British North American Colonies; and 4,280 to the island of Cuba.—Am. Ed.]

APPRENTICE, a young person of either sex, bound by indenture to serve some particular individual or company of individuals, for a specified time, in order to be instructed in some art, science, or trade.

According to the common law of England, every one has a right to employ himself at

pleasure in every lawful trade. But this sound principle was almost entirely subverted by a statute passed in the fifth year of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, commonly called the Statute of Apprenticeship. It enacted that no person should, for the future, exercise any trade, craft, or mystery, at that time exercised in England and Wales, unless he had previously served to it an apprenticeship of seven years at least; so that what had before been a bye-law of a few corporations, became the general and statute law of the kingdom. Luckily, however, the courts of law were always singularly disinclined to give effect to the provisions of this statute; and the rules which they established for its interpretation served materially to mitigate its injurious operation. But though its impolicy had been long apparent, it was continued till 1814, when it was repealed by the 54 Geo. 3. c. 96. This act did not interfere with any of the existing rights, privileges, or bye-laws of the different corporations; but wherever these do not interpose, the formation of apprenticeships, and their duration, is left to be adjusted by the parties themselves.

The regulations with respect to the taking of apprentices on board ships, the only part of this subject that properly comes within the scope of this work, are embodied in the 4 Geo. 4. c. 25. They are as follows:

From the 1st of January, 1824, every master of a merchant ship exceeding the burden of 80 tons shall have on board his ship, at the time of such ship clearing out from any port of the United Kingdom, one apprentice or apprentices, in the following proportion to the number of tons of her admeasurement, according to the certificate of registry; viz:

For every vessel exceeding 80 tons, and under 200 tons, 1 apprentice at least,

who shall, at the period of being indentured, respectively be under the age of 17 years; provided that every apprentice so to be employed on board any vessel, as above described, shall be duly indented for at least four years; and the indentures of every such apprentice shall be enrolled with the collector and comptroller at the Custom-house of the port whence such vessel shall first clear out after the execution of such indentures.-2.

Every apprentice so enrolled is hereby exempted from serving in his Majesty's navy until he shall have attained the age of 21 years; provided he is regularly serving his time either with his first master or ship-owner, or some other master or ship-owner to whom his indentures shall have been regularly transferred; and every owner or master neglecting to enrol such indentures, or who shall suffer any such apprentice to leave his service, except in case of death or desertion, sickness, or other unavoidable cause, to be certified in the log book, after the vessel shall have cleared outwards on the voyage upon which such vessel may be bound, shall for every such offence forfeit 101., to be paid in manner following; that is to say, one moiety by the owners of such vessel, and the other moiety by the master thereof, to be levied, recovered, and applied, in manner hereinafter mentioned.-4.

Every person to whom such apprentice shall have been bound may employ him, at any time, in any vessel of which such person may be the master or owner; and may also, with the consent of such appprentice, if above 17, and if under that age, with the consent of his parents or guardians, transfer the indentures of such apprentice, by endorsement thereon, to any other person who may be the master or owner of any registered vessel.-5.

No stamp duty shall be charged on any such transfer by endorsement.—> 6.

And by 6 Geo. 4. c. 107. 138. it is enacted, that no person shall be deemed to be an apprentice for the purposes of the preceding act (4 Geo. 4. c. 25.), unless the indenture of such apprentice shall have been enrolled with the collector and comptroller of the port from which any such apprentice shall first go to sea after the date of such indenture; or in default of such enrolment, until the same shall have been enrolled at some port from which the ship in which such apprentice shall afterwards go to sea shall be cleared.

By stat, 7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 56. 7. it is enacted that no higher duty than 2s. shall be charged upon the indenture of any apprentice bound to serve at sea in the merchant service.

[It may be stated, as a general rule, that apprentices in the United States may be bound to serve some master or mistress, if a male, till the age of twenty-one years, and if a female, till the age of eighteen. Every person, however, has the right, in accordance with the principles of natural equity, as well as of the common law of England, to employ himself at pleasure in every lawful occupation, even though he should not have served an apprenticeship to it. This is, at least, the case in all but a very few occupations, such as that of an auctioneer, and the professions of law and medicine, the door of the admission into which is guarded, either by requiring a previous apprenticeship, or by restrictions and regulations of a different description, and is thus guarded on the ground of securing to the public, in the most effectual man. ner, the due performance of the services to be rendered.—Âm. Ed.]

AQUA FORTIS. See ACID (Nitric).

AQUAMARINE. See BERYL.

AQUA VITÆ. (Ger. Aquavit; Fr. Eau de vie; It. Acqua vite; Sp. Agua de vida; Rus. Wodka; Lat. Aqua vita), a name familiarly applied to all native distilled spirits; equivalent to the eau de vie, or brandy, of the French, the whiskey of the Scotch and Irish, the geneva of the Dutch, &c. In this way it is used in the excise law relating to the distilleries. ARANGOES, a species of beads made of rough cornelian. They are of various forms, as barrel, bell, round, &c., and all drilled. The barrel-shaped kind, cut from the best stones. are from two to three inches long, and should be chosen as clear as possible, whether red or white, having a good polish, and free from flaws. The bell-shaped are from one to two inches long, being in all respects inferior. Considerable quantities were formerly imported from VOL L-E

7

Bombay, for re-exportation to Africa; but since the abolition of the slave trade, the imports and exports of arangoes have been comparatively trifling.-(Milburn's Orient. Com.)

ARCHANGEL, the principal commercial city of the north of Russia, in lat. 64° 34′ N., long. 38° 59′ E. It is situated on the right bank of the Dwina, about 30 English miles above where it falls into the White Sea. Population, 7,000 or 8,000. The harbour is at the island of Sollenbole, about a mile from the town. The bar at the mouth of the Dwina has generally 144 feet water; so that ships drawing more than this depth must be partially loaded outside the bar from lighters. The Dwina being a navigable river, traversing a great extent of country, renders Archangel a considerable entrepôt. It was discovered in 1554, by the famous Richard Chancellor, the companion of Sir Hugh Willoughby in his voyage of discovery; and from that period, down to the foundation of Petersburgh, was the only port in the Russian empire accessible to foreigners. Though it has lost its ancient importance, it still enjoys a pretty extensive commerce. The principal articles of export are grain, tallow, flax, hemp, timber, linseed, iron, potash, mats, tar, &c. Deals from Archangel, and Onega in the vicinity of Archangel, are considered superior to those from the Baltic. Hemp not so good as at Riga, but proportionally cheaper. Tallow is also inferior. Iron same as at Petersburgh, sometimes cheaper and sometimes dearer. The quality of the wheat exported from Archangel is about equal to that from Petersburgh. The imports are not very exten sive. They consist principally of sugar, coffee, spices, salt, woollens, hardware, &c. The merchants of Archangel are said by Mr. Coxe to be distinguished for honesty and intelligence. (Travels in the North of Europe, vol. iii. p. 150.)

Account of the Quantities of the principal Articles exported from Archangel during each of the six Years ending with 1832.

The total value of the exports in 1831 was estimated at only 1,155,872 rubles. of which 319 were British, 12 Dutch, 14 Account of the Number of Ships that sailed from Archangel during each of the Six Years ending

was estimated at 14,750,756 rubles, while that of the imports During the same year there arrived at Archangel 443 ships; Prussian, 12 Mecklenburg, &c.

Years

Ships

with 1832.

The trade of Archangel is very much influenced by the demand from the more southerly parts of Europe, and especially from England, for corn. When a brisk demand is anticipated, oats are brought in large quantities from the interior, sometimes even from the distance of 1,500 miles, in covered barks capable of holding several hundred quarters. But as there are few extensive mercantile establishments here, the supplies are scanty, except when a large demand has been expected for some time previously to the season for bringing them down.-(Oddy's European Commerce, and private information.)

Monies, Weights, and Measures, same as at Petersburg; which see.

ARGOL, ARGAL, OR TARTAR, (Ger. Weinstein; Du. Wynsteen; Fr. Tartre; It. Sp. and Port. Tartaro; Rus. Winnui kamen; Lat. Tartarus), a hard crust formed on the sides of the vessels in which wine has been kept; it is red or white according to the colour of the wine, and is otherwise impure. On being purified, it is termed cream or crystals of tarlar. It consists principally of bitartrate of potash. White argol is preferable to red, as containing less drossy or earthy matter. The marks of good argol of either kind are, its being thick, brittle, hard, brilliant, and little earthy. That brought from Bologna is reckoned the best, and fetches the highest price., Argol is of considerable use among dyers, as serving to dispose the stuffs to take their colours the better. Pure argol, or cream of tartar, is extensively used in medicine. It has an acid and rather unpleasant taste. It is very brittle, and easily reduced to powder: specific gravity 1.95.

The duty on argol, which was judiciously reduced in 1832, from 28. a cwt. to 6d. produced in that year 678. 38. 7d. of nett revenue. This, supposing the whole to have been charged with the low duty,

would show an importation of 27,127 cwt. The price of argol in the London market, in August, 1833. varied, Bologna from 52s. to 58s. per cwt., Leghorn 48s. to 50s. per ditto, Naples 42s. to 488., Rhenish 48s. to 50s.

ARISTOLOCHIA (Fr. Serpentaire; Ger. Schlangenwurzel; It. Serpentaria; Lat. Aristolochia serpentaria), the dried root of Virginia snake-root, or birthwort; it is small, light, and bushy, consisting of a number of fibres matted together, sprung from one common head, of a brownish colour on the outside, and pale or yellow within. It has an aromatic smell something like that of valerian, but more agreeable; and a warm, bitterish, pungent taste, very much resembling camphor.—(Ency. Metrop.)

ARMS. See FIRE-ARMS.

ARQUIFOUX (Ger. Bleyglanz; Fr. Arquifou; It. Archifoglio; Lat. Galena), a sort of lead ore, very heavy, easily reduced to powder, and hard to melt; when it is broken, it parts into shining scales of a whitish colour. The potters use it to give their works a green varnish; and in England it is commonly called potters' ore. Arquifoux is exported from England in large lumps; it should be chosen heavy, the scales bright and resembling tinglass.

ARRACK, OR RACK (Fr. Arac; Ger. Arrack, Rack; Du. Arak, Rak; It. Araco; Sp. Arak; Port. Araca; Rus. Arak), a spirituous liquor manufactured at different places in the East.

Arrack is a term applied in most parts of India, and the Indian islands, to designate every sort of spirituous liquor; a circumstance which accounts for the discrepancy in the statements as to the materials used in making it, and the mode of its manufacture. The arrack of Goa and Batavia is in high estimation; that of Columbo or Ceylon has been said to be inferior to the former; but this is doubtful. Goa and Columbo arrack is invariably made from the vegetable juice, toddy, which flows by incision from the coco nut tree (Cocos nuci fera). After the juice is fermented, it is distilled and rectified. It usually yields about an eighth part of pure spirit. Batavia or Java arrack is obtained by distillation from molasses and rice, with only a small admixture of toddy. When well prepared, arrack is clear and transparent; generally, however, it is slightly straw-coloured. Its flavour is peculiar; but it differs considerably, no doubt in consequence of the various articles of which it is prepared, and the unequal care taken in its manufacture. In England, arrack is seldom used except to give flavour to punch: formerly the imports were quite inconsiderable; but they have recently increased so as to amount, at an average of the years 1829 and 1830, to above 30,000 gallons a year. In the East its consumption is immense. It is issued to the soldiers in India as part of the established rations; and it is supplied, instead of rum, to the seamen of the royal navy employed in the Indian seas. It is one of the principal products of Ceylon. Its prime cost in that island varies from 8d. to 10d. a gallon; and from 600,000 to 700,000 gallons are annually exported, principally to the presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. It is sold in Ceylon by the legger of 150, and in Java by the legger of 160 gallons. In 1829, the first quality of Java arrack sold in Batavia at 160 florins the legger, or 1s.83d. per gallon. The second quality fetched 125 florins.

Pariah-arrack is a phrase used to designate a spirit distilled in the peninsula of India, which is said to be often rendered unwholesome by an admixture of ganga (Cannabis sativa), and a species of Dature, in the view of increasing its intoxicating power. But it is not clear whether the term pariaharrack be meant to imply that it is an inferior spirit, or an adulterated compound. This liquor is sometimes distilled from coco nut toddy, and sometimes from a mixture of jaggery, water, and the barks of various trees.-(See Milburn's Orient. Com.; and Mr. Marshall's valuable Essay on the Coco Nut Tree, p. 18.)

ARROW-ROOT, the pith or starch of the root Maranta arundinacea. It has received its common name from its being supposed to be an antidote to the poisoned arrows of the Indians. The powder is prepared from roots of a year old. It is reckoned a very wholesome nutritious food; it is often adulterated, when in the shops, with the starch or flour of potatoes. It is a native of South America; but has been long introduced into the West Indies, where it forms a pretty important article of cultivation. An excellent kind of arrow-root, if it may so be called, is now prepared in India from the root of the Curcuma angustifolia. The plant is abundant on the Malabar coast, where the powder is made in such quantities as to be a considerable object of trade. Some of it has been brought to England. The Maranta arundinacea has been carried from the West Indies to Ceylon, where it thrives extremely well, and where arrow-root of the finest quality has been manufactured from it. (Ainslie's Mat. Indica.)

At an average of the three years ending with 1831, the arrow-root entered for home consumption amounted to 441,556 lbs. a year. Previously to last year (1832), the duty on arrow-root from a British possession was 9s. 4d. a cwt.; but as it is now reduced to 1s. a cwt., a considerable increase of consumption may be expected. It was quoted in the London market, in August, 1833, at from 9d. to Is. 10d. per lb.

ARSENIC (Ger. Arsenik; Fr. Arsenic; It. and Sp. Arsenico; Rus. Müschjah; Lat. Arsenicum). This metal has a bluish white colour not unlike that of steel, and a good deal of brilliancy. It has no sensible smell while cold, but when heated it emits a strong odour of garlic, which is very characteristic. It is the softest of all the metallic bodies, and so brittle