government cannot long fubfift, we fhall, at laft, after infinite convulfions, and civil wars, find repofe in abfolute monarchy, which it would have been happier for us to have eftablished peaceably from the beginning. Abfolute monarchy, therefore, is the eafieft death, the true Euthanafia of the BRITISH Conftitution.

THUS, if we have reafon to be more jealous of monarchy, because the danger is more imminent from that quarter; we have alfo reafon to be more jealous. of popular government, because that danger is more terrible. This may teach us a leffon of moderation in all our political controverfies.

OFF

OF PARTIES IN GENERAL:

F all men, who diftinguifh themselves by memorable atchievements, the firft place of honor feems due to LEGISLATORS, and founders of states, who tranfmit a fyftem of laws and inftitutions to fecure the peace, happiness, and liberty of future generations. The influence of useful inventions in the arts and sciences may, perhaps, extend farther than thofe of wife laws, whofe effects are limited both in time and place; but the benefit arifing from the former is not fo fenfible as that which proceeds from the latter. Speculative fciences do, indeed, improve the mind; but this advantage reaches only to a few perfons, who have leifure to apply themselves to them. And as to practical arts, which increase the commodities and enjoyments of life, 'tis well known, that mens happiness confift not fo much in an abundance of thefe, as in the peace and fecurity with which they poffefs them; and those bleffings can only be derived from good government. Not to mention, that general virtue and good morals in a state, which are fo requifite to happiness, can never arife from the moft refined precepts of philosophy, or even the fevereft injunctions of religion; but muft proceed entirely from the virtuous education of the youth, the effect of wife laws and inftitutions. I muft, therefore, prefume to differ from my lord BACON in this particular, and must regard antiquity as fomewhat unjuft in its diftribution of honor, when it made gods of all the inventors of useful arts, fuch as CERES, BACCHUS, ESCULAPIUS; and dignified legislators, fuch as ROMULUS and THESE US, only with the appellation of demi-gods, and heroes.

As much as legiflators and founders of ftates ought to be honored and refpected among men, as much ought the founders of fects and factions to be detefted and hated; because the influence of factions is directly contrary to that of laws. Factions fubvert government, render laws impotent, and beget the fierceft animofities among men of the fame nation, who ought to give mutual affistance and protection to each other. And what fhould render the founders of parties more odious is, the difficulty of extirpating thefe parties, when once they have taken rife in any ftate. They naturally propagate themselves for many centuries, and seldom end but by the total diffolution of that government, in which they are planted. They are, befides, feeds which grow moft plentifully in the richest foils; and tho' defpotic governments be not entirely free from them, it must be confeffed, that

they rife more easily, and propagate themselves fafter in free governments, where they always infect the legislature itself, which alone could be able, by the steady application of rewards and punishments, to eradicate them.

FACTIONS or parties may be divided into PERSONAL and REAL; that is, into factions founded on perfonal friendship or animofity among thofe who compofe the factions, and into thofe founded on fome real difference of fentiment or interest. The reafon of this diftinction is obvious, tho' I must acknowlege, that parties are feldom found pure and unmixt, either of the one kind or the other. 'Tis not often feen, that a government divides into factions, where there is no difference in the views of these factions, either real or apparent, trivial or material: And in those factions, which are founded on the most real and most material difference, there is always obferved to be a great deal of personal animofity or affection. But notwithstanding this mixture, a party may be denominated either perfonal or real, according to that principle which is predominant, and is found to have the greatest influence.

PERSONAL factions arise most easily in small republics. Every domeftic quarrel becomes an affair of state. Love, vanity, emulation, any paffion begets public divifion, as well as ambition and refentment. The NERI and BIANCHI of FLORENCE, the FREGOSI and ADORNI of GENOA, the COLONNESI and ORSINI of modern ROME, were parties of this kind.

MEN have fuch a propensity to divide into perfonal factions, that the smallest appearance of real difference will produce them. What can be imagined more trivial than the difference between one color of livery and another in horfe-races ? Yet this difference begot two moft inveterate factions in the GREEK empire, the PRASINI and VENETI, who never fufpended their animofities, till they ruined that unhappy government.

WE find in the ROMAN hiftory a very remarkable faction betwixt two tribes, the POLLIA and PAPIRIA, which continued for the space of near three hundred years, and discovered itself in their fuffrages at every election of magiftrates *. This faction was the more remarkable, that it could continue for fo long a tract of time; even tho' it did not spread itself, nor draw any of the other tribes into a fhare of the quarrel. If mankind had not a ftrong propenfity to fuch divifions, the indifference of the reft of the community muft have fuppreffed this foolish animofity, that had not any aliment of new benefits and injuries, of fympathy and antipathy, which never fail to take place, when the whole ftate is rent into two equal factions.

NOTHING is more ufual than to fee parties, which have begun, upon a real difference, continue even after that difference is loft. When men are once inlifted

on oppofite fides, they contract an affection to the perfome with whom they are united, and an animofity against their antagonists: And thefe paffions they often transmit to their pofterity. The real difference between GUELF and GHIBBELLINE was long loft in ITALY, before these factions were extinguished. The GUELFS adhered to the pope, the GHIBBELLINES to the emperor; and yet the family of SFORSA, who were in alliance with the emperor, tho' they were GUELFS, being expelled MILAN by the king * of FRANCE, affifted by JACOMO TRIVULZIO and the GHIBBELLINES, the pope concurred with the latter, and they formed leagues with the pope against the emperor.

THE Civil wars which arofe fome few years ago in MOROCCO, betwixt the blacks and whites, merely on account of their complexion, are founded on a very pleasant difference. We laugh at them; but I believe, were things rightly examined, we afford much more occafion of ridicule to the MOORS. For, what are all the wars of religion, which have prevailed in this polite and knowing part of the world? They are certainly more abfurd than the MOORISH civil wars. The difference of complexion is a fenfible and a real difference: But the difference about an article of faith, which is utterly abfurd and unintelligible, is not a difference of fentiments, but only a difference of a few phrafes and expreffions, which one party accepts of, without understanding them; and the other refufes, in the fame manner. Befides, I do not find, that the whites in MOROCCO ever impofed on the blacks any neceflity of altering their complexion, or threatened them with inquifitions and penal laws in cafe of obftinacy: Nor have the blacks been more unreasonable in this particular. But is a man's opinion, where he is able to form a real opinion, more at his difpofal than his complexion? And can one be induced by force or fear to do more than paint and difguife in the one cafe as well as in the other?

REAL factions may be divided into factions from intereft, from principle, and from affection. Of all factions, thofe from intereft are the moft reasonable, and the most excufable. Where two orders of men, fuch as the nobles and people, have a diftinct authority in a government, which is not very accurately balanced and modelled, they naturally follow a diftinct intereft: nor can we reasonably expect a different conduct from that degree of felfifhnefs, which is implanted in human nature. It requires very great fkill in a legiflator to prevent fuch factions; and many philofophers are of opinion, that this fecret, like the grand elixir, or perpetual motion, may amufe men in theory, but can never poffibly be reduced to practice. In defpotic governments, indeed, factions often do not appear; but they are never the lefs real; or rather, they are more real and more pernicious, upon that very account. The diftinct orders of men, nobles and people, foldiers and merchants, have all a diftinct intereft; but the more powerful oppreffes the weaker with impunity, and without refiftance; which begets a feeming tranquillity in fuch governments.

THERE has been an attempt to divide the landed and trading intereft in England; but without fuccefs. The interest of these two bodies is not really diftinct, and never will be fo, till our public debts increase to fuch a degree, as to become altogether oppreffive and intolerable.

LEWIS XII.

PARTIES

PARTIES from principles, especially abftract fpeculative principles, are known only to modern times, and are, perhaps, the most extraordinary and unaccountable phænomenon, which has ever yet appeared in human affairs. Where different principles beget a contrariety of conduct, which is the cafe with all different political principles, the matter may be more easily explained. A man, who efteems the true right of government to lie in one man, or one family, cannot eafily agree with his fellow-citizen, who thinks, that another man or family is poffeffed of this right. Each naturally wishes that right may take place, according to his own notions of it. But where the difference of principles is attended with no contrariety of action, but each may follow his own way, without interfering with his neighbor, as happens in all religious controverfies; what madness, what fury can beget fuch unhappy and fuch fatal divifions?

Two men, travelling on the highway, the one eaft, the other weft, can easily pass each other, if the way be broad enough: But two men, reafoning upon oppofite principles of religion, cannot fo eafily pafs, without fhocking; tho' one. fhould think, that the way were also, in that cafe, fufficiently broad, and that each might proceed, without interruption, in his own course. But fuch is the nature of the human mind, that it always takes hold of every mind that approaches it; and as it is wonderfully fortified and corroborated by an unanimity of fentiments, fo it is fhocked and difturbed by any contrariety. Hence the eagerness, which moft people difcover in a difpute; and hence their impatience of oppofi tion, even in the moft fpeculative and indifferent opinions.

THIS principle, however frivolous it may appear, feems to have been the origin of all religious wars and divifions. But, as this principle is univerfal in human nature, its effects would not have been confined to one age, and to one fect of religion, did it not there concur with other more accidental caufes, which raise it to fuch a height, as to produce the higheft mifery and devaftation. Moft religions of the ancient world arofe in the unknown ages of government, when men were as yet barbarous and uninstructed, and the prince, as well as peasant, was difpofed to receive, with implicite faith, every pious tale or fiction which was of fered him. The magiftrate embraced the religion of the people, and entering cordially into the care of facred matters, naturally acquired an authority in them, ́and united the ecclefiaftical with the civil power. But the Chriftian religion arifing, while principles directly oppofite to it were firmly established in the polite part of the world, who defpifed the nation that firft broached this novelty; no wonder, that in fuch circumstances, it was but little countenanced by the civil magiftrate, and that the priesthood were allowed to engross all the authority in the new fect. So bad a ufe did they make of this power, even in thofe early times, that the perfecutions of Christianity may, perhaps in part, be afcribed

* I fay, in part; For 'tis a vulgar error to imagine, that the ancients were as great friends to toleration as the ENGLISH OF DUTCH are at prefent. The laws against external fuperftition, amongft the ROMANS, were as ancient as the time of the twelve tables; and the Jews as well as CHRISTIANS were fometimes punished by them: tho', in general, these laws were not rigorously executed.

*

Immediately after the conqueft of GAUL, they forbad all but the natives to be initiated into the religion of the DRUIDS; and this was a kind of perfecution. In about a century after this conqueft, the emperor, CLAUDIUS, quite abolished that fuperftition by penal laws; which would have been a very grievous perfecution, if the imitation of the ROMAN manners had not, before-hand, weaned

the

ascribed to the violence inftilled by them into their followers. -And the fame principles of priestly government continuing, after Christianity became the establifhed religion, they have engendered a spirit of perfecution, which has ever fince been the poifon of human fociety, and the fource of the moft inveterate factions in every government. Such factions, therefore, on the part of the people, may justly be esteemed factions of principle; but, on the part of the priests, who are the prime movers, they are really factions of interest.

THERE is another caufe (befide the authority of the priests, and the feparation of the ecclefiaftical and civil powers) which has contributed to render CHRISTENDOM the scene of religious wars and divifions. Religions, that arife in ages totally ignorant and barbarous, confift moftly of traditional tales and fictions, which may be very different in every sect, without being contrary to each other; and even when they are contrary, every one adheres to the tradition of his own fect, without much reasoning or difputation. But as philofophy was widely spread over the world, at the time when Christianity arofe, the teachers of the new fect were obliged to form a fyftem of fpeculative opinions; to divide, with fome accuracy, their articles of faith; and to explain, comment, confute, and confirm with all the fubtilty of argument and science. From hence naturally arose keennefs in difpute, when the chriftian religion came to be split into new divifions and herefies: And this keennefs affifted the priests in their pernicious policy, of begetting a mutual hatred and antipathy among their deluded followers. Sects of philofophy, in the ancient world, were more zealous than parties of religion; but, in modern times, parties of religion are more furious and enraged than the most cruel factions which ever arose from intereft and ambition.

I HAVE mentioned parties from affection as a kind of real parties, befide those from intereft and principle. By parties from affection, I understand those which are founded on the different affections of men towards particular families and perfons, whom they defire to rule over them. These parties are often very violent; tho', I must own, it is fomewhat unaccountable, that men fhould attach themfelves fo ftrongly to perfons, with whom they are no way acquainted, whom perhaps they never faw, and from whom they never received, nor can ever hope for any favor. Yet this we find often to be the cafe, and even with men, who, on other occafions, difcover no great generofity of fpirit, nor are found to be easily transported by friendship beyond their own intereft. We are apt, I know not how, to think the relation betwixt us and our fovereign very close and intimate. The fplendor of majefty and power beftows an importance on the fortunes even of a fingle perfon. And when a man's good-nature gives him not this imaginary intereft, his ill-nature will, from spite and oppofition to perfons whofe fentiments are different from his own,

the GAULS from their ancient prejudices. SUETONIUS in vita CLAUDII. PLINY afcribes the abolition of the Druid fuperftitions to TIBERIUS, probably because that emperor had taken fome fteps towards reftraining them, (lib. 30. cap. 1.) This is an instance of the ufual caution and moderation of the ROMANS in such cases; and very different

from their violent and fanguinary method of treating the Chriftians. Hence we may entertain a suspicion, that thofe furious perfecutions of Chriftianity were, in fome meafure, owing to the impru dent zeal and bigotry of the first propagators of that fect; and Ecclefiaftical hiftory affords us many reafons to confirm this fufpicion.

ESSAY