the crown is permitted, amidst the greatest jealoufy and watchfulness in the people; nay proceeding from thofe very principles: Liberty, in a country of the highest liberty, is left entirely to its own defence, without any countenance or protection : The wild ftate of nature is renewed, in one of the moft civilized focieties of mankind: And great violences and diforders among the people, the most humane and the best natured, are committed with impunity; while the one party pleads obedience to the supreme magiftrate, the other the fanction of fundamental laws.

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OF THE POPULOUSNESS OF ANTIENT NATIONS *.

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HERE is very little ground, either from reafon or experience, to conclude the universe eternal or incorruptible. The continual and rapid motion of matter, the violent revolutions with which every part is agitated, the changes remarked in the heavens, the plain traces as well as tradition of an universal deluge, or general convulfion of the elements; all these prove ftrongly the mortality of this fabric of the world, and its paffage, by corruption or diffolution, from one state or order to another. It muft, therefore, have its infancy, youth, manhood, and old age, as well as each individual form which it contains; and 'tis probable, that, in all these variations, man, equally with every animal and vegetable, will partake. In the flourishing age of the world, it may be expected, that the human fpecies fhould poffefs greater vigor both of mind and body, more prosperous health, higher fpirits, longer life, and a stronger inclination and power of generation. But if the general fyftem of things, and human fociety of courfe, have any fuch gradual revolutions, they are too flow to be difcernible in that fhort period which is comprehended by hiftory and tradition. Stature and force of body, length of life, even courage and extent of genius, feem hitherto to have been naturally, in all ages, pretty much the fame. The arts and sciences, indeed, have flourished in one period, and have decayed in another: But we may observe, that at the time when they rofe to greatest perfection among one people, they were perhaps totally unknown to all the neighboring nations; and tho' they univerfally decayed in one age, yet in a fucceeding generation they again revived, and diffused themselves over the world. As far, therefore, as obfervation reaches, there is no

An ingenious writer has honored this difcourfe with an answer, full of politenefs, erudition, and good fenfe. So learned a refutation would have made the author fufpect, that his reafonings were entirely overthrown, had he not ufed the precaution, from the beginning, to keep himself on the fceptical fide; and having taken this advantage of the ground, he was enabled, tho' with much inferior forces, to preserve himself from a total defeat. That Reverend gentleman will always find, where his antagonist is fo entrenched, that it will be very

difficult to force him. VARRO, in fuch a fituation, could defend himself against HANNIBAL, PHARNACES against CESAR. The author, however, very willingly acknowleges, that his antagonist has detected many mistakes both in his authorities and reafonings; and it was owing entirely to that gentleman's indulgence, that many more errors were not remarked. In this edition, advantage has been taken of his learned animadverfions, and the Effay has been rendered lefs imperfect than formerly.

univerfal

univerfal difference difcernible in the human fpecies: And tho' it were allowed, that the univerfe, like an animal body, had a natural progrefs from infancy to old age; yet as it must still be uncertain whether, at prefent, it be advancing to its point of perfection, or declining from it, we cannot thence prefuppofe any decay in human nature". To prove, therefore, or account for the greater populousness of antiquity, by the imaginary youth or vigor of the world, will fcarce be admitted by any just reafoner. Thefe general phyfical caufes ought entirely to be excluded from that queftion.

THERE are indeed fome more particular phyfical caufes of great importance. Diseases are mentioned in antiquity, which are almost unknown to modern medicine; and new diseases have arifen, and propagated themselves, of which there are no traces in antient hiftory. And in this particular we may obferve, upon comparison, that the disadvantage is very much on the fide of the moderns. Not to mention fome others of lefs importance. The fmall pox commits fuch ravages, as would almost alone account for the great fuperiority fuppofed in antient times. The tenth or the twelfth part of mankind, deftroyed every generation, fhould make a vaft difference, it may be thought, in the numbers of the people; and when joined to venereal distempers, a new plague diffused every where, this disease is perhaps equivalent, by its conftant operation, to the three great fcourges of mankind, war, peftilence, and famine. Were it certain, therefore, that antient times were more populous than the prefent, and could no moral causes be affigned for fo great a change; thefe phyfical caufes alone, in the opinion of many, would be fufficient to give us fatisfaction on that head.

BUT is it certain, that antiquity was fo much more populous, as is pretended? The extravagancies of Vossius, with regard to this fubject, are well known. But an author of much greater genius and difcernment has ventured to affirm, that, according to the beft computations which these fubjects will admit of, there are not now, on the face of the earth, the fiftieth part of mankind, which existed in the time of JULIUS CAESAR ". It may eafily be obferved, that the comparifons, in this case, must be very imperfect, even tho' we confine ourfelves to the fcene of antient hiftory; EUROPE, and the nations about the MEDITERRANEAN. We know not exactly the numbers of any EUROPEAN kingdom, or even city, at: prefent: How can we pretend to calculate those of antient cities and states, where hiftorians have left us fuch imperfect traces? For my part, the matter appears to me fo uncertain, that, as I intend to throw together fome reflections on that head, I shall intermingle the inquiry concerning caufes with that concerning facts; which ought never to be admitted, where the facts can be afcertained with any tolerable affurance. We fhall, first, confider, whether it be probable, from what we know of the fituation of fociety in both periods, that antiquity must have been more po

COLUMELLA fays, lib. 3. cap. 8. that in EGYPT and AFRICA the bearing of twins was frequent, and even customary; gemini partus fa. miliares, at pene folennes funt. If this was true, there is a phyfical difference both in countries and ages. For travellers make no fuch remarks of thefe countries at prefent. On the contrary we

are apt to suppose the northern nations more fertile. As thofe two countries were provinces of the Roman empire, 'tis difficult, tho' not altogether abfurd, to fuppofe that fuch a man as COLUMELLA might be mistaken with regard to them.

Lettres PERSANES. See alfo L'Esprit des Loix, liv. 23. cap. 17. 18. 19.

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pulous;

pulous; fecondly, whether in reality it was fo. If I can make appear, that the conclufion is not fo certain as is pretended, in favor of antiquity, 'tis all I afpire to.

IN general, we may obferve, that the queftion with regard to the comparative populousness of ages or kingdoms implies very important confequences, and commonly determines concerning the preference of their whole police, manners, and conftitution of government. For as there is in all men, both male and female, a defire and power of generation, more active than is ever univerfally exerted, the reftraints which they lie under, muft proceed from fome difficulties in mens fituation, which it belongs to a wife legislature carefully to obferve and remove. Almoft every man who thinks he can maintain a family, will have one; and the human fpecies, at this rate of propagation, would more than double every generation, were every one coupled as foon as he comes to the age of puberty. How fast do mankind multiply in every colony or new fettlement; where it is an easy matter to provide for a family; and where men are no way straitened or confined, as in long established governments? Hiftory tells us frequently of plagues, which have swept away the third or fourth part of a people: Yet in a generation or two, the deftruction was not perceived; and the fociety had again acquired their former number. The lands which were cultivated, the houses built, the commodities. raised, the riches acquired, enabled the people who efcaped, immediately to marry, and to rear families, which fupplied the place of those who had perished. And for a like reafon, every wife, juft, and mild government, by rendering the condition of its fubjects eafy and fecure, will always abound moft in people, as well as in commodities and riches. A country, indeed, whofe climate and foil are fitted for vines, will naturally be more populous than one which produces only corn, and that more populous than one which is only fitted for pafturage. But if every thing elfe be equal, it feems natural to expect, that where-ever there are moft happiness and virtue, and the wifeft inftitutions, there will also be most people.

THE queftion, therefore, concerning the populousness of antient and modern times, being allowed of great importance, it will be requifite, if we would bring it to fome determination, to compare both the domeftic and political situation of these two periods, in order to judge of the facts by their moral causes; which is the first view in which we propofed to confider them.

THE chief difference betwixt the domeftic oeconomy of the antients and that of the moderns confifts in the practice of flavery, which prevailed among the former, and which has been abolifhed for fome centuries thro'out the greateft part of EuROPE. Some paffionate admirers of the antients, and zealous partifans of civil liberty, (for these fentiments, as they are both of them, in the main, extremely just, are found to be almost infeparable), cannot forbear regretting the lofs of this inftitution; and whilft they brand all fubmiffion to the government of a single person with the harsh denomination of flavery, they would gladly reduce the greatest part

This too is a good reason why the fmall-pox does not depopulate countries fo much as may at firft fight be imagined. Where there is room for more people, they will always arife, even without the affiftance of naturalization-bills. "Tis remark

ed by Don GERONIMO DE USTARIZ, that the provinces of SPAIN which fend most people to the INDIES, are moft populous; which proceeds from their fuperior riches.

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of mankind to real flavery and subjection. But to one who confiders coolly on the fubject, it will appear, that human nature, in general, really enjoys more liberty at prefent, in the most arbitrary government of EUROPE, than it ever did during the most flourishing period of antient times. As much as fubmiffion to a petty prince, whofe dominions extend not beyond a fingle city, is more grievous than obedience to a great monarch; so much is domeftic flavery more cruel and oppreffive than any civil fubjection whatsoever. The more the mafter is removed from us in place and rank, the greater liberty we enjoy; the lefs are our actions infpected and controled; and the fainter that cruel comparison becomes between our own fubjection, and the freedom, and even dominion of another. The remains that are found of domeftic flavery, in the AMERICAN colonies, and among fome EUROPEAN nations, would never furely create a defire of rendering it more univerfal. The little humanity commonly obferved in perfons accustomed, from their infancy, to exercife fo great authority over their fellow-creatures, and to trample upon human nature, were fufficient alone to difguft us with that authority. Nor can a more probable reafon be given for the fevere, I might fay, barbarous, manners of antient times, than the practice of domeftic flavery; by which every man of rank was rendered a petty tyrant, and educated amidst the flattery, submiffion, and low debasement of his flaves.

ACCORDING to the antient practice, all checks were on the inferior, to restrain him to the duty of fubmiffion; none on the fuperior, to engage him to the reciprocal duties of gentleness and humanity. In modern times, a bad fervant finds not easily a good master, nor a bad mafter a good fervant; and the checks are mutual, fuitable to the inviolable and eternal laws of reafon and equity.

THE Custom of expofing old, ufelefs, or fick flaves in an island of the TYBER, there to starve, feems to have been pretty common in ROME; and whoever recovered, after having been fo expofed, had his liberty given him, by an edict of the emperor CLAUDIUS; where it was likewife forbid to kill any flave, merely for old age or fickness. But fuppofing that this edict was ftrictly obeyed, would it better the domeftic treatment of flaves, or render their lives much more comfortable? We may imagine what others would practife, when it was the profeffed maxim of the elder CATO, to fell his fuperannuated flaves for any price, rather than maintain what he esteemed an ufelefs burthen ".

THE ergaftula, or dungeons, where flaves in chains were forced to work, were very common all over ITALY. COLUMELLA advifes, that they be always built under ground; and recommends it as the duty of a careful overfeer, to call over every day the names of these flaves, like the muftering of a regiment or fhip's company, in order to know prefently when any of them had deferted. A proof of the frequency of these erguftula, and of the great number of flaves ufually confined in them.

A CHAINED flave for a porter was ufual in ROME, as appears from OVID", and other authors. Had not these people fhaken off all fenfe of compaffion towards that unhappy part of their fpecies, would they have prefented all their

friends, at the first entrance, with fuch an image of the severity of the master, and mifery of the flave?

NOTHING fo common in all trials, even of civil caufes, as to call for the evidence of flaves; which was always extorted by the most exquisite torments, DEMOSTHENES fays, that where it was poffible to produce, for the fame fact, either freemen or flaves as witneffes, the judges always preferred the torturing of flaves, as a more certain and infallible evidence'.

SENECA draws a picture of that diforderly luxury, which changes day into night, and night into day, and inverts every stated hour of every office in life. Among other circumftances, fuch as difplacing the meals and times of bathing, he mentions, that regularly, about the third hour of the night, the neighbors of one who indulges this falfe refinement, hear the noise of whips and lafhes; and, upon inquiry, find he is then taking an account of the conduct of his fervants, and giving them due correction and difcipline. This is not remarked as an instance of cruelty, but only of diforder, which, even in actions the most usual and methodical, changes the fixed hours that an established cuftom had affigned them ":

But our present business is only to confider the influence of flavery on the populousness of a state. 'Tis pretended, that, in this particular, the antient practice had infinitely the advantage, and was the chief caufe of that extreme populousness which is fuppofed in thofe times. At prefent, all masters difcourage the marrying of their male fervants, and admit not by any means the marriage of the female, who are then fuppofed altogether incapacitated for their fervice. But where the property of the fervants is lodged in the master, their marriage and fertility form his riches, and bring him a fucceffion of flaves, that supply the place of those whom age and infirmity have difabled. He encourages, therefore, their propagation as much as that of his cattle; rears the young with the fame care; and educates them to fome art or calling, which may render them more useful or valuable to him. The opulent are, by this policy, interested in the being at least, tho' not the well-being of the poor; and enrich themselves, by increafing the number and industry of those who are fubjected to them. Each man, being a fovereign in his own family, has the fame intereft with regard to it, as the prince with regard to the state; and has not, like the prince, any oppofite motives of ambition or vain-glory, which may lead him to depopulate his little fovereignty.

is apt to renew the barbarous wish of CALIGULA, that the people had but one neck. A man could almost be pleased, by a fingle blow, to put an end to fuch a race of monfters. You may thank God, fays the author above cited, (epift. 7.), addreffing himself to the ROMAN people, that you have a mafter, (viz. the mild and merciful NERO), who is

incapable of learning cruelty from your example. This was fpoke in the beginning of his reign: But he fitted them very well afterwards; and no doubt was confiderably improved by the fight of the barbarous objects, to which he had, from his infancy, been accustomed.

All