Megasthenes made use of; it is that which Possidonius endeavoured to appropriate to himself, several centuries after, in his pretended measurement of the earth, and constituted the 240,000th part of the circumference of the globe, as well as the 666 part of a degree. By applying this to the supposed dimensions of the different parts of India, the result will be, that the measurements of Megasthenes and Patrocles, are precisely the same. It is from an ignorance of these various models, and that exact identity of measures, that the geographers of the succeeding ages have alternately rejected the testimony of both Megasthenes and Patrocles, according to the hypothesis which they themselves may have formed relative to the extent of India. The chart formed by Eratosthenes, notwithstanding all its errors, was generally adopted; and Straho, Mela, Pliny, Solinus, Ethicus, Paulus Orosius, Martianus Capella, Isidore of Seville, &c. have traced after it their various descriptions of India.

The sovereigns of Alexandria being very desirous to monopolize all the commerce of the East, did every thing in their power to facilitate the progress of navigation. We hear of vessels setting sail from the ports in the Arabian Gulf, and, after coasting along its shores, reaching Malabar, and even the mouths of the Ganges. But, from the first century of the Christian æra, the navigators had discovered that regular and durable winds prevailed during certain seasons in those seas, which form what we now term, the Monsoons. A pilot, named

Hippalus, profiting by this observation, was the first who dared to stretch out from the shores of Arabia, and abandon himself and vessel to those annual winds, which soon conveyed both to the coasts of India, as he had rightly foreseen. His grateful contemporaries conferred his name on the wind; this is the Leuconotus of the Greeks and Romans, and our own south-west monsoon: it was this which conducted the ancients to the part of Asia just alluded to, and they were regularly brought back by the north-east monsoon which blows the other six months in an opposite direction, from the eastern coasts of India, to the entrance of the Arabian Gulf.

Of all the Itineraries of India, published during the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, there only remains the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. The measurements contained in it, are exceedingly exact, so far as concerns the shores of the Arabian Gulf, those of the east coast of Africa, and the south part of Arabia. But, on approaching to the Ganges, the author of the Periplus loses all his reputation for accuracy, and this merely because the navigators of Alexandria were but little acquainted with so remote a portion of India. It was not until a later period, that more correct charts were published; yet it is not a little singular, that Ptolemy, deceived by the information of others, actually doubled the extent of the coast of Coromandel, although he at the very same time made the shores of the Circars, of Orixa, and even of part of Bengal, to disappear from his chart. P. II.

SKETCH of the LIFE of GEORGE ZOEGA, a learned DANE, by ARSENNE THIEBAUT DE BERNEAUD.

HE name of George Zoega apper

it is associated with that of past ages, and the history of the most ancient na. tions. This learned man was born in 1751, at Kiel, in Danish Holstein; and, from his earliest youth, felt an ardent desire for study, while he, at the same time, enjoyed the exquisite delight arising from the exercise of the intellectual faculties. He was, accordingly, unceasing in his endeavours to accumulate those precious treasures, which may be con. MONTHLY MAG, No, 231,

stantly used without ever being exhausted; those treasures which cupidity never envies; which are preserved without the uneasiness incident to avarice, while they

ensure for old age an active existence, even when consigned to the arms of de crepitude. But erudition becomes only a frivolous advantage, if, undirected by the torch of sound criticism, it does not attach itself to some one particular branch of history, or some separate and distinct portion of the immense edifice of human knowledge. This truth made a due impression on the mind of Zoega, and he fixed upon philology as a

science

science not only grand and sublime in itself, but the basis of all human literature. Fortune, which seems incessantly disposed to conspire against great talents, appeared unfriendly to the ruling passion of Zoega, when she unexpectedly sent him to Italy in 1777. This journey warmed his imagination, and sharpened ainind naturally calculated for observation. He ascended the Alps, repeating the sublime verses of Haller; he beheld Venice, that superb city, built on piles, amidst the shallows, and at the extre mity of a stormy gulf; the inhabitants of which, leaving off the trade of fishermen, attained that extraordinary degree of power, which alarmed all the sovereigns of Europe during the fifteenth century. lle then traversed Lombardy, fertilized by the Po; he stopped some time at Florence, where Dante had written his Hell, and the Medici presided during the brilliant epoch of the revival of arts and sciences. He next bent his course to Pompeia, to consult that precious depository for the study of antiquity; and, while his eyes contemplated Vesuvius, where Nature, at the same time, creates and destroys, his senses were gratified with the beneficent atmosphere, in the vicinity of Baia, where we meet with tombs, once uselessly sump tugus, now converted into commodious huts for the shelter of laborious poverty. After this journey, which proved equally useful and agreeable, he returned in 1779 to Rome, which he had only slightly viewed, in order to fix himself in that eternal city. There he remained during the space of twenty-nine years.

Zoega soon became acquainted, and formed a strict intimacy with many of the most distinguished artists and learned men of that ancient capital. He was fortunate enough, during that period, to acquire not only the protection, but the sincere attachment of that Cardinal Borgia, who knew how to estimate nen according to their just value, and whose name is intimately connected with all the different branches of archæology, The enthusiasm inspired amidst the fine climate of Italy, the grand events in printed on the very ruins of those eities hitherto so famous, and on the summit of that Capitol, whence descended those eagles that were to govern the world; the enchanting ideas that continually flow in upon a man, contemplating such scenes, and even the very pleasure of dolce fur niente, 19 seductive to foreigners who

reside but a short time within the influence of so happy a sky;—in short, a combination of all these circumstances, was calculated to turn the thoughts of Zoega from the career he had at first pointed out; but nothing could pervert his attachment to study!

It is not modern productions that most contribute to render Rome interesting, but those of times past. To an archa ologist such as Zoega, the shades of those grand objects which once decorated this ancient capital of the worldthose majestic remains recall to memory whatever has occurred on the theatre of the history of mankind. The fate of Rome too, notwithstanding its numerous vicissitudes, has been far more mild than that of the other great cities, which make a figure in the annals of antiquity. The topographical situation of some, and the vast ruins of others, are insulated and secluded in deserts which the travelier is unable to traverse without danger.

Thebes, which a poetical tradition has called the city with a hundred gates, together with Athens and Rome, are the only ones, where we can with any degree of certainty, still trace the ancient plan; point out the direction of the streets; fix the position, and sometimes the design, of those edifices, the magnificence of which is vaunted in history, and which are rendered celebrated by memorable events. On revisiting Rome, and reperusing its history, at every step, Zoega conceived the project of giving a detailed topography of that famous metropolis. Many antiquaries have attempted this laborious task, but all have failed; and even Nardini, the most correct of the whole, has committed many errors.

Formed on a love of the sciences, saved, as if by a miracle, from the sack of Velletri, in the war of 1744, the celebrated Borgian Museum was calculated to become au asylum for all the sciences; it was so in fact, and out of its bosom issued, during the space of ten years, a multitude of works, calculated to astonish the learned world, and contribute to those sciences which either advance or preserve civilisation, as well as teach man to become acquainted with himself. It was thence that Giorgi drew forth the first monument of the third Coptic dialect, until then unknown Alder there found the Coptic characters; Becchetti several very interesting bas reliefs; Wael, the materials for a learned: dissertation on the Glyptic Lithology of

the

the Egyptians; Father Paulino, his manu scripts concerning the inhabitants of Hindoostan, &c. &c. &c. Zoega there also discovered several medals, and many Egyptian manuscripts, which he undertook to explain.

In 1787, be published his Catalogue Raisonné of the imperial medals struck at Alexandria, which did great honor to his talents, and, indeed, laid the foundation of his literary glory. About the same time, Pope Pius VI. who had just embellished Rome with several Egyptian monuments dug out of the earth, which bad concealed them for more than twelve centuries, requested Zoega to write a dissertation on the Obelisks. All his attention and all his studies were accordingly directed towards this point; and, in 1797, appeared his book, Dɛ Origine & Usu Obeliscorum, This is the most ample work that has ever appeared on the subject; for, although Mercati, Kircher, and Bandini, had already treated on the obelisks, yet many deficiencies still remained to be supplied; while our author,not satisfied with barely describing them, and considering their figure, size, and destination, first traced their history from the remotest periods to the time of Augustus, and brought it down so low as the commencement of the nineteenth century. He also paid attention to the hieroglyphics which adorned them, and stated the motives which induced him to believe, that the sculptured figures formed the representation of so many hymns in bonour of the divinities to which these monaments were originally consecrated. His book was still in the press, when Italy beheld the year 1799 signalised by great events: the sovereign pontiff at that period was precipitated from the chair of St. Peter, and Rome itself governed by cousuls. These memo. rable occurrences changed the lot of Zoega, and, although the existence of the new republic proved but ephemeral, he was benceforth subjected to contiseal privations. Being burdened with the maintenance of a large family, the post of agent of Denmark at Rome, and the office of consul in the Papal States, both of which he obtained in 1798, with the very moderate salary of 300 rix-dollars per annum (about 501, sterling) could not prove equal to the supply of his necessities, at a period when all commercial relations were interrupted, in consequence of a long and disastrous war. But these evils did not overwhelm his enter

prizing spirit; and, notwithstanding the frequent attacks of a disease in the chest, which had long tormented him, he continued his researches into antiquity. It was then that he prepared his exquisite dissertation concerning "Lycurgus and the Menades," a production that was read soon after in the Roman Institute, of which he became a member.

The discovery of a statue of the God on, in 1797, had attracted the atten tion of the illustrious Danish philologist, to this new Mithriac monument. It is well known that the worship of that divinity, called the Invincible, was brought from Cilicia, into Greece and Italy; that he was embraced by the Emperor Commodus, and maintained his reputation until the time of Theodosius.

In 1801, the situation of Zoega was so deplorable, that he conceived the idea of leaving Rome, and retiring to Holstein. This project, the suggestion of despair, would have abridged eight or ten years of so valuable a life, and it was accordingly combated by all his friends. But he was happily prevented by Baron Hernan de Schubart, Minister Plenipotentiary, and Envoy Extraordinary from Denmark to Italy, a man full of affection for the sciences, and devoted to all those who cultivated them with success. It was he who represented the situation of so valuable a subject to the King of Denmark, and at the same time pointed out the advantage of his residence at Rome. Accordingly, Zoega was enabled to reinain there, having been appointed librarian to, and professor in, the Uni versity of Kiel, with the usual emoluments annexed to those offices.

Zoega had not only rendered himself familiar with the ancient languages, but also with most of the modern idioms. He wrote in Latin with great facility, composed in Italian with all the graces of a Tuscan, and was also complete master of the French, the English, and the German. Ile was entirely devoid of that pedantry and rudeness, which characterise many of his contempora❤ ries: to him, the good and the learned were always welcome. He was very communicative; and the excellence of his heart conferred on his conversation, his features, and his very silence, certain charms which made him beloved by all. In the interior of his house, he was amiable; and he himself was the instructor of his children. Unacquainted with intrigue, sordid interest never affected bin; $2

destitute

destitute of ambition, his own glory (as Tacitus says of the philosopher) was the last subject of his thoughts. He was always doubtful of his talents, and, that Je might live more completely dedicated to virtue, he retired, as it were, within himself. His favourite book was the Odyssey, and his memory was so excellent, that he could recite at will, most of the fine passages from Homer, Virgil, Dante, and Klopstock. The loss of his wife, whom he loved tenderly, soon produced that melancholy, which affects the sources of life, and proves one of the most distressing symptoms of chronic diseases. For many years he had been afflicted with a pulmonary complaint, and this was greatly aggravated by a severe application to study. At length, death, who spares no one, surprised him in the midst of his brilliant career; for he was cut off by a nervo-bilious fever, at the age of fifty-eight, carrying with him the regrets of all good men. The professor was a member of the Italian Academy, as well as of the Academies of Copenhagen, Goettingen, Berlin, Florence, Sienna, Rome, &c. &c. He had been just nominated a Knight of the Order of Danebrog.

An HISTORICAL EULOGIUM on M. BROUSSONET, F.R.S. pronounced at the PUBLIC SESSION of the INSTITUTE of FRANCE. By M. CUVIER. Pierre-Marie-Auguste Broussonet, Pro. fessor of Botany at the Medical School of Montpellier, and also a Member of the Institute, as well as an Associate of the Royal Society of London, &c. was born at Montpellier, Feb. 28, 1761. His father, François Broussonet, was a Professor of Medicine there, and his mother's maiden name was Elizabeth Senard-Pâquier. From the earliest period of his life he exhibited the promise of great talents: for at eighteen years of age he was nominated to a chair in the university of the city where he was born; at twentyfour he was unanimously elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, a circumstance which had not occurred from the origin of that body; at a later period he was chosen an Associate of the Institute during his absence, and preserved on the list, notwithstanding his residence in the South of France.

He was born in the bosom of a celebrated school: he was the son of a man who exercised in an honorable manner the functions of his office: thus the

sciences may be said to have surrounded his cradle, and it was their language which he was first taught to utter.

With a view to withdraw his mind from the study of nature, to which he was fondly attached, young Broussonet was sent to a distance from his native home to learn the languages; but, on his return, with a view of studying medicine, be employed himself in culling plants during the day, and in dissecting at night. In fine, he encumbered his father's house with productions of every kind, while at the same time he made such a rapid progress in medicine, that he obtained the title of Doctor of Physic at eighteen years of age. The thesis which he chose on this occasion had “respiration” for its object, and was entitled, "Variæ positiones circa Respirationem." The excellence of this composition fully justified the premature honors he received, for it exhibits an admirable specimen of comparative anatomy and physiology; while all the known facts are assembled and illustrated with great judgment.

Having repaired soon after to Paris, for the express purpose of obtaining the minister's leave to enter on his new professorship, he met with such opposition on account of his youth, that he resigned all ideas on that subject; and, thinking that natural history presented him a field in which he could distinguish himself, be resolved to apply his time and talents to this subject.

Although the eloquence of Buffon had inspired a general taste for the study of nature, it had at the same time deterred the greater part of the scholars from the methods most proper to guide them in respect to it; the zoologists and the mineralogists were not as yet familiarised with the commodius nomenclature and rigorous synonymy of Linnæus. It appeared as if this great man had written for the botanists alone, and all these, becoming his disciples, constituted a separate class, the example of which then had but a feeble influence in respect to the study of the other kingdoms of Nature; but M. Broussonet, incited by the examples of the respectable M. Gouan, with an extraordinary zeal for the pure Linnæan doctrine, resolved to render it victorious in France, and accordingly attached his reputation to the fate of this enterprise.

As it is in the distinctions of the speeies, that the methods adopted by the learned Swede exhibit their superiority,

and

and the collections of Paris did not then afford a sufficient variety to serve as the basis of such important labors, Brous sonet determined to visit such foreign cabinets as contained the finest specimens.

Ile, accordingly, directed his course to wards England, the universal commerce of which nation, its immense colonies, its grand maritime expeditions, together with the taste of the king and several of the grandees for natural history, had ena bled it at that period to form the richest depositaries of the productions of the two worlds. Mr., now Sir Joseph, Banks at this time enjoyed that extensive reputa tion which will render his name immortal in the history of the sciences, and it was under his immediate protection that Broussonet published the first part of his work on fishes, in 1782, under the title of Ichthyologia decas i.

It contains the Latin descriptions, classed after the Linnæan order, of ten rare kinds, one half of which were before unknown. They were accompanied with an equal number of plates; and constituted, as it were, a fine frontispiece to an important work, which, it is to be greatly lamented, was never continued and completed. At length, M. Broussonet returned from London, preceded by the reputation of his new work, decorated with the title of a member of the Royal Society, and reckoning among his friends, the son of Linnæus, Solander, Sparman, Sibthorp, Scarpa, and several other natu ralists of the same rank.

His devotion to Linnæus would not at that period have operated as a recommendation to many who enjoyed great influence in the capital of France, and particularly to Daubenton, who then pos sessed much credit both at the Academy and with the ministry; but the mild manners and modest conduct of Broussonet ntade his profession of faith be forgotten, and he found a most zealous protector in the very man who was considered as likely to be most vexed with his doctrines. Daubenton made him his deputy at the College of France, his assistant at the Veterinary school, and also contributed more than any other to his reception at the Academy.

He now gave notice of his intentions to publish his grand work on Ichthyology, and actually presented the prospectus to the public. The distribution was to be nearly on the same plan as that laid down by Linnæus, but he was to describe 1200

species, while the Swede had only enumerated four hundred and sixty. Nearly at the same time, Broussonet read dissertations at the Academy, and gave a description of the dog-fish, of which he mentioned twenty-seven species; one-third of which were unknown to other naturalists. He also treated of the Annarhischas lupus, as well as the Silure trembleur, (Scomber gladius,) first discovered by Adanson to possess the powers of electricity. He next described the spermatic vessels of fishes; and demonstrated, that several possessed scales, which were supposed to be destitute of them. But the most celebrated of all his discourses, was that "on the comparison between the movements of plants and of animals." It is to him we are indebted for the first complete description of that vegetable, to which we are most tempted to attribute something voluntary in its oscillations: the hedysa rum gyrans, or that kind of grass produced in Bengal, the lateral leaves of which rise and fall both day and night, without any external provocation. Ile also insisted on the determinate volition of the parts of plants, notwithstanding all obstacles; the progress of the roots in search of humidity; the inflexions of the leaves in order to obtain light, &c.

In a short time he aimed at still higher objects, and his Memoir on the respiration of fishes appertains entirely to the philosophy of natural history. He shews how much respiration, diminishes in respect to intensity, and the blood in regard to heat, from birds to quadru peds, and from quadrupeds to reptiles; he compares the size of the heart, and the quantity of blood of different animals; he explains why those who have small bronchial openings can live longer out of water than the others; he men tions the experiments made to demonstrate the degree of heat which fishes are capable of supporting, &c. His paper on the teeth, is of a similar nature. The difference between the teeth of flesheating, and herbivorous animals; the flakes of enamel which penetrate the substance of the latter, and which give them that inequality so necessary for the purposes of trituration; the infinite variety of the number, of the figure, and of the position, of the teeth of animated beings; &c.; in short, all these facts, which are at present notorious to every one, were not then deficient either in novelty or interest.