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the suburb of Benares, in the gardens of which, most of the instructions are given. The mode and course of teaching are the same in all. The scholar does not conclude his studies until the expiration of twelve years, and those who wish actually to become pundits, that is to say, professors, must remain there for twenty years.

In each of these universities, the learned deliver private lectures in the temples, on theology alone: but public courses take place in the groves and gardens, which appertain to the temples, on the other sciences; such as grammar, poetry, history, jurisprudence, medicine, astro nomy, mythology, popular theology, and philosophy. Those only who are born Brahmins, and who have been twice consecrated, are admitted to the private courses, because at these the mysteries of the Vedam are explained: on the other hand, the public courses are open to the laity, such as the children of the cast of soldiers.

The different branches of instruction are taught according to the elementary books, all of which, even the Sanscrit dictionaries, are composed in verse. The pundits make the students learn then by heart; in addition to this, two of these discourse together on each lesson of the science which happens to be the object of investigation. During the first five years, the student is restricted to an absolute silence; at the expiration of this period, it is permitted him to propose his doubts to the professor, who is obliged either to enlighten him on these subjects, or forego his reputation. The inumacy which subsists between the professors and students, who live constantly together, may perhaps make up for the defects of such a method. Each pundit has along with him, during ten or twelve, or perhaps a greater number of years, six, ten, and as many as fifteen, students; and he enjoys a considerable pension, which is paid to him by the treasurer of the temples, in proportion to his pupils. But, as these pedagogues do not embrace this state, from views of interest alone, but for the express purpose of consigning themselves to that innate love of indolence, so truly characteristic of the Hindoos, they themselves are usually very ignorant. No emulation is excited for study, because the Hindoo can never prevail upon hanself to overcome his natural inactivity. No hope of recompeace can excite the desire to redouble his application, because birth is the

sole claim by which any one can hope to attain distinction.

The unmarried Brahmin is destined, from his earliest infancy, to enjoy a portion of the immense property of the temples and the pagodas: it is in consequence of similar pretensions, that the ignorant pundit lives in the enjoyment of laziness and abundance. No one has yet endeavoured to discover the means of affording a remedy to the disagreeable consequences resulting from the great heats, and the too frequent use of dry legumes, called kichery; together with the other causes of indolence in the inhabitants of India. Nothing, however, is wanting but the example of some great genius, who would assuredly excite imi❤ tation in a country, where he who knows how to read the Vedam, and recite the customary explanations of it, is considered a prodigy of erudition.

The institution created by the Marquis of Wellesley, forms a fine contrast to those just mentioned. It was founded at Fort William in Bengal, by that Governor-general, in the month of August, 1800, after the model of Oxford and Cambridge. Its aim is the instruction of those persons destined to occupy some situation in the administration of that country, under the English government: it is simply termed "the College of Calcutta," or, College at Fort William, in Bengal;" it, however, merits the title of University to the full as much as those of Europe. It is astonishing, that the British government did not before discern the necessity of such an institution. The students educated at it, are admitted to the administration of the territorial possessions, the population of which amounts to thirty millions of inhabitants. These are composed of several nations, who differ from each other, as much in respect to their origin, as their languages, their manners, customs, and religions; but, in conformity to the express directions of the English govern. ment, they ought to be regulated by their own peculiar institutions. Instead of complying, however, with these orders, the servants of the East India Company neglect the study of the laws and the customs of the various nations alluded to above, although called upon to govern them, and that too, to such a degree, as to be ignorant of their respective langoages. This circumstance obliges them

*The Court of Directors of the English East India Company.

to.

to trust to Indian interpreters, and, besides, is productive of a variety of disorders. Notwithstanding the manifest inconveniences resulting from this circumstance, the means of remedying these, by a literary foundation, for the purposes of instructing that class called upon to govern the country, was never thought of until the time of Mr. Hastings, about the year 1781. M. Eichorn, in his "Histoire des Langues modernes," p. 225, t. 5. (see "Histoire de la Lit. terature," 8vo. Goettingen, 1807,) gives a detailed account of the measures then adopted. The candidates for the dif ferent employments, both civil and military, are now bound to frequent the courses of lectures given in the college, during the space of three years, and the plan of study is distributed under the five following principal heads: viz.

1. The study of the Asiatic languages, such as the Sanscrit, the Arabian, the Persian, the idioms of Hindoostan, Bengal, the Marrattah empire, &c. &c. also the Latin and Greek, the modern European languages, and the English Classics.

2. Greek, Roman, and Universal History; but, above all, the History and Antiquities of Hindoostan and the Decan.

3. Mathematics, Geography, Natural History, Botany, Chemistry, and Astro

nomy.

4. The Laws of the Mahometans, Hindoos, and other nations of India; together with the English Laws, and the Regulations of the Governors-General.

5. Political Economy, and every thing relative to the commerce of the country.

An institution formed on so extensive a plan, ought necessarily to multiply the number of professors; but the act for regulating these particulars, leaves this matter undecided, and the patronage is accordingly vested in the Governor-General for the time being. The duration of each course is limited to two months, which is followed by a month of vacation, in conformity to the customs of the English Universities. At the end of every half-year, there are public exercises, followed by a distribution of prizes. The professors and scholars must remain within the same edifice, in conformity to the customs of Oxford. The immediate inspection of the whole is confided to an ecclesiastic of the church of England, with the title of Provost; there is also a Vice-Provost. To these is entrusted the reception of scholars, the superintendence of their morals, their instruction in religious principles, &c. &c. After Seven years of uninterrupted attention, the Provost, Vice-Provost, together with

all the, Professors, may retire on onethird of their annual salaries, under the name of pension, and return, if they please, to Europe. This pension may be even augmented, at the recommendation of the patron and inspector. To render the establishment less expensive, a branch of this college has been lately transferred to Hertford, in England.

S.

To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine.

SIR,

THE

HE following observations on cold, are intended to call the attention of the philosophical reader to this opinion that cold is a self-existent efiluvium.

To denote this effluvium, the existence of which the writer has long admitted, we may, without inquiring about etymological propriety, use the word frigoric.

Water dilates as its temperature rises from 36° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, to 40°, or even up to 212°. During its dilatation it absorbs caloric.

Water also dilates whilst it sinks from 36°, the temperature at which it attains its greatest density, to 32°, the freezing point, or even to 70 under particular circumstances.

Observation 1st.-The dilatation of the water in the last instance, is not accompanied by an absorption of caloric: caloric is developed during the dilatation.

Obs. 2d. There are no void spaces in water, therefore the dilatation in question may not be attributed to an augmentation of void space.

Obs. 3d. By dilatation, the volume of the water is augmented; therefore, to allow of this augmentation of volume, something that occupies space must be acquired.

Obs. 4th.-What is acquired is not Newton's subtle ether. When the ex. istence of caloric and frigoric shall have been admitted, then the subtle ether of Newton may be annihilated. The dilatation in question, then, may not be caused by an absorption of subtle ether.

Obs. 5th.-An alteration in the arrangement of the aqueous molecules cannot, of itself, cause the dilatation in question. If such an arrangement takes place, it must enlarge the interstices between the aqueous molecules; and, during their enlargement, something must be absorbed. These interstices are not void spaces; yet they cannot be filled, unless they be pervaded by frigoric.

Obs. 6th.-The dilatation in question cannot be caused by a formation of gas in the character of small bubbles. There

is not any evidence of the existence of such bubbles.

Obs. 7th.-Crude water contains a quantity, equal in bulk to two hundredths of its own volume, of atmospheric air, which is disengaged as the water ap. proaches to a state of congelation; therefore the dilating water may contain small bubbles of atmospheric air: nevertheless, the water contained this air when at 36°; therefore, though this air is separated from the water as it approaches to 320, yet, as nothing calculated to occupy space is acquired, the volume of the water ought not to be augmented.

Obs. 8th.-Boiled distilled water, which contains no atmospheric air, dilates as its temperature approaches 320 or 70, from 36°. In this instance, bubbles of air can have no influence on the dilata tion in question.

The foregoing observations shew, that the dilatation which water undergoes, while its temperature sinks from $6° to 32° or 70, cannot be accounted for with out admitting the existence of frigoric. But, by supposing that frigoric exists, and that it is absorbed during the dilatation in question, the difficulties attending a consistent explanation of the phenomenon are removed.

Before we spoke of the dilatation which takes place in water, as its temperature sinks below 36°, here supposed to be produced by an absorption of frigoric, we mentioned the dilatation which takes place in water, as its temperature rises from S6° to 212°, and depends on an absorption of caloric; not, however, with a view to advance what might be said in regard to the absorption of caloric, but merely in order, first, to call to mind a beautiful contrast; and, secondly, that the reader who is able to make deductions for himself, may perceive that it is just as reasonable to infer from one dilatation that frigoric exists, and is absorbed by water as its temperature sinks from 369, as it is, from the other dilatation, to infer that caloric exists, and is absorbed by water while its temperature rises above 36°: the latter inference is now generally admitted. For similar reasons we shall mention the expansion of water by evaporation at 2120, before we make our observations on the expansion of water by congelation at 320. The term dilatation was used to denote a slow increase of volume; expansion will be used to denote a rapid or sudden in crease of volume.

Under the common pressure of the atmosphere water expands at 2120, The

expansion is accompanied with an absorption of caloric.

Water expands on congealing at 32o. This expansion may be attributed to an absorption of frigoric. Pressure, which retards and totally prevents evaporation, retards and probably entirely prevents, the consolidation of water; but nothing important can at present be inferred from this circumstance.

Obs. 9th-Modern experiments teach, that 146° of caloric escape from water during the expansion of congelation. The loss of this caloric, were not an equivalent absorbed, would decrease the vo lume of the water. Though 146° of caloric have escaped, yet the volume of the water has not decreased, but it has increased; therefore, an equivalent for the 146° of caloric escaped must have been absorbed. The equivalent may be frigoric.

Obs. 10th.-The expansion enlarges the interstices between the aqueous molecules; consequently there must be absorbed of frigoric a quantity sufficient, not only to occupy the space left by the 146° of caloric that have escaped, but also to fill the interstices after their enlargement.

Obs. 11th.-The small bubbles of air often seen in ice, cannot cause the powerful expansion that accompanies the consolidation of water. Had they a tendency to expand powerful enough to split household utensils, to burst cannons and bomb-shells, and to split trees and rocks, all of which phenomena are caused by the expansion in question, they would flaw and split a fragile substance such as ice, burst from their little cavities, and explode like guns.

Obs. 12th-These bubbles, since they consist of atmospheric air, which tends to contract as its temperature decreases, will, in some degree, counteract the expansion in question.

Obs. 13th.-Boiled distilled water, which contains no atmospheric air, expands whilst it congeals. Air bubbles are not concerned in this instance.

Obs. 14th. The specific gravities of ice and water are as 92 to 100; therefore, the quantity of air contained in unboiled undistilled water, being but two hundredths, is not sufficient to cause the augmentation of volume that constitutes, the expansion in question. Even though all of it were acquired during the process of congelation, yet, were no other cause concerned, it would make the specific gravities of ice and water but as 98 to 100, or thereabout.

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Obs. 15th.All of the bubbles found in ice may not be derived from the at mospheric air contained in crude water. From the surface of water there often escapes, in the character of small bub bles, a gas; of which the sources may be a ligneous substance, undergoing decomposition at the bottom of the water, and the lungs and stomachs of small amphibious creatures. Hence, water that is well stocked with small living creatures, and rests on a bottom, which, in the summer season, is the bed of an innumerable tribe of aquatic plants, that undergo decomposition in the following winter, is covered, during a frost, with an ice nearly full of bubbles.

Obs. 16th.-Supposing a specific arrangement of the aqueous molecules in ice may, perhaps, account for the aug. mentation of volume that accompanies the consolidation of water; it implies, however, nothing concerning what is absorbed. The result of this arrangement, if it takes place, is an enlargement of the interstices between the aqueous moleeules; consequently, since these interstices are not void spaces, they must imbibe something, which probably is frigoric.

Without admitting the existence of frigoric, the expansion in question, as must appear from the foregoing observations, cannot be satisfactorily accounted for any hypotheses hitherto employed does not say what is acquired. But, supposing the volume to be increased two per cent. by bubbles of atmospheric air, and six per cent. by latent frigoric; or otherwise, none per cent. by bubbles of air, and eight per cent. by latent frigoric, would very well account for the phenomenon. Whether the two hundredths of atmospheric air contained in crude water has the effect of lessening, by two per cent. the specific gravity of water on its conversion into ice, may probably be proved by ascertaining and comparing the specific gravities of ice formed of boiled distilled water, and of ice formed of crude water.

When an acid, as the vitriolic, and some other species of matter, as common water, are nixed, they form a calorific mixture. The sum which denotes the volume of the mixture is less than the sums taken together, which denoted the volumes of the ingredients before they were mixed. With an extrication of caloric, then, there is a diminution of voJuine.

Some of the alkalis, amongst which classes ice, when mixed with some other

species of matter, as the nitric acid, extricate frigoric, and make a frigorific

mixture.

The following observations seem to shew, that frigoric exists; that it is combined or latent in alkalis and ice, and can be disengaged from them; and that, in several respects, it bears to al kalis the same relation that caloric bears to acids.

Obs. 17th.-Some frigorific mixtures disengage a gas as they extricate frigoric, and therefore are not proper for the present inquiry: those only trom which no gas is disengaged, will be considered here. Of the latter class there are some in each, of which the sum of the volume is less than the sums taken together, of the volumes of the ingredients before they were mixed. Suppose one of this class-its volume has decreased, therefore something calculated to occupy space must have escaped. Gas has not escaped. Caloric has not escaped: there has been an influx of caloric. But fri goric, if it exist, may have escaped, and, by escaping, may have caused the decrease of volume.

Obs. 18th. The simplest frigorific process is the thawing of common ice. When ice liquefies, it absorbs 146° of caloric; therefore, since this absorption is accompanied by no increase, but by a decrease of volume, the ice, hereby converted into water, developes 146° of fri goric, and a little more.

Obs. 19th.-Philosophers maintain that the decrease of temperature about a frigorific mixture, is thus caused: the mixture, by virtue of an increased capacity for caloric, absorbs that effluvium very rapidly from the surrounding medium. Did such a rapid absorption take place, and did no frigoric, at the same time, escape, the volume of the mixture would he increased, and not decreased: hence appears a defect in the method com monly employed to account for the phenomenon in question. When by virtue of an increased capacity, a body absorbs caloric, and thereby causes cold, it suffers an augmentation of volume. Water, alcohol, and ether, when they evaporate, absorb caloric, and produce a depression of temperature; but their volume is thereby augmented.

Obs. 20th.--Nitric and sulphuric acids, which are ingredients in many frigorific mixtures, contain latent caloric; therefore, were what has escaped to produce the decrease of volume afforded by the acids, it ought to be caloric, and the ingredients ought to make a calorific mix

ture,

ture. Alkalis and common ice, which are ingredients in many frigorific mixtures, contain, according to the opinion of the writer, much latent frigoric, therefore, admitting this opinion, what escaped to produce the decrease of volume was frigoric, which was afforded by the alkall—hence, as it ought to be, the compound is a proper frigorific mixture. At fifteen feet apart, place two metal lic mirrors in such a position, that the reflecting surface of one shall face the same surface of the other, and the focus of each shall be in a hue with the focus of the other, and with the centres of both the mirrors. Each mirror shall be concave, and shall have a focus at eighteep inches from its surface: between the focusses there will be a distance of twelve feet. Call one reflecting surface A, and its focus a; the other B, and its focus b. At a, place the bulb of a delicate thermometer; at b, a calorific mixture. Philosophers allow that caloric escapes from the calorific mixture, becomes radiant in the terrestrial atmosphere, and forms divergent rays; that some of these rays impinge on the surface B, and are reflected; that, after this reflection, they become parallel rays by virtue of B's concavity; that these parallel rays impinge on the surface A, and are a second time reflected; that, after the second reflection, they become convergent rays by virtue of A's concavity, and form a focus at a; and that the thermometer, baving its bulb at a, readily absorbs the caloric, and acquires hereby an elevation of temperature,

*

For the calorific mixture at b, substitute a fiigorific mixture. In this case, the writer supposes, that frigoric escapes from the frigorific mixture, becomes radiant in the terrestrial atinosphere, and forms divergent rays; that some of these rays are reflected at B, and are hereby made parallel rays; that these parallel rays are reflected at A, and are hereby made convergent rays; that these convergent rays form a focus at a, penetrate the thermometer, and depress its temperature. Thus frigoric, like caloric, obeys the laws of radiation and reflection.

Whilst a frigorific mixture remains at b, the thermometer at a continues at a temperature lower than the temperature of the atmospheric air with which it is in contact. To account for this fact, philosophers who deny that cold exists, maintain that the temperature is higher at a thun at b; that therefore a, the thermometer, must yield caloric to b, the frigorific mixture; that the caloric

thus yielded by the thermometer be comes radiant caloric, which is reflected at A, and again at B, and brought to a focus at b; that the frigorific mixture at b, absorbs the caloric, and with an avidity that causes the thermometer to emit, very rapidly, its caloric. this explanation there are objections.

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Obs. 21st.-After having admitted the self-existence of cold, it is not inconsistent to say, that frigoric, by penetrat ing the thermometer, depresses its temperature, or, in other words, decreases the volume of its mercury: it is a fact, that any liquid, whilst at a temperature higher than the temperature at which it attains its greatest density, decreases in volume as it absorbs frigoric. The cause of this fact needs not to be explained here: it is governed by the law that regulates that oscillation, as to its volume, which water undergoes when its temperature is hurried, from 40° through 36° to 32°, and from 32° through 36° to 40°, alternately.

Obs. 22d.-Whilst the apparatus is perfect, the thermometer, which is twelve feet from the frigorific mixture, continues at a temperature lower than the temperature of the air with which itis in contact; but, when either of the mirrors is removed, its temperature rises till it is equal to the temperature of the contiguous air; this proves that the frigorific mixture acts on the thermometer by means of reflected rays, which must be eighteen feet in length.

The depression of temperature in the thermometer at a, produced by the frigo rific mixture at b, may be easily explain. ed, as may be learned from what has already been said, by admitting that fri goric exists. The mode of explanation used by philosophers who deny the effluvial existence of cold is objectionable, as may be learned from the following ob servations.

Obs. 23d. The first position of these philosophers seems to be, that caloric escapes from the thermometer into the atmosphere, and then becomes radiant. Be it remembered, that soon after the adjustment of the apparatus, the thermometer will have attained a temperature lower than the temperature of the atmos pheric air with which it is in contact. In this state of the circumstances the thermometer cannot yield its caloric: no substance yields its caloric to another when the temperature of that substance is higher than its own temperature. How then shall caloric escape from the thermometer and become radiant? In fact,

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