ESSAY I.

Of COMMERCE.

HE greatest part of mankind may be divided into

THE part of mankind be divided into

two claffes; that of shallow thinkers, who fall fhort of the truth; and that of abftrufe thinkers, who go beyond it. The latter clafs are by far the most uncommon; and I may add, by far the most useful and valuable. They fuggeft hints, at leaft, and ftart difficulties, which they want, perhaps, skill to pursue; but which may produce fine discoveries, when handled by men who have a more just way of thinking. At worst, what they fay is uncommon; and if it should coft fome pains to comprehend it, one has, however, the pleasure of hearing fomething that is new. An author is little to be valued, who tells us nothing but what we can learn from every coffeehouse conversation.

All people of fhallow thought are apt to decry even those of folid understanding, as abftrufe thinkers, and metaphysicians, and refiners; and never will allow any thing to be just which is beyond their own weak conceptions. There are some cases, I own, where an extraordinary refinement affords a ftrong prefumption of falfehood, and where no reasoning is to be trusted but what is natural and easy. When a man deliberates concerning his conduct in any particular affair, and forms schemes in politics,

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politics, trade, œconomy, or any business in life, he never ought to draw his arguments too fine, or connect too long a chain of confequences together. Something is fure to happen, that will difconcert his reasoning, and produce an event different from what he expected. But when we reafon upon general fubjects, one may justly affirm, that our fpeculations can scarcely ever be too fine, provided they be juft; and that the difference between a common man and a man of genius is chiefly feen in the fhallowness or depth of the principles upon which they proceed. General reasonings feem intricate, merely because they are general; nor is it easy for the bulk of mankind to distinguish, in a great number of particulars, that common circumstance in which they all agree, or to extract it, pure and unmixed, from the other fuperfluous circumftances. Every judgment or conclufion, with them, is particular. They cannot enlarge their view to thofe univerfal propofitions, which comprehend under them an infinite number of individuals, and include a whole fcience in a fingle theorem. Their eye is confounded with fuch an extenfive profpect; and the conclufions, derived from it, even though clearly expressed, feem intricate and obfcure. But however intricate they may feem, it is certain, that general principles, if juft and found, muft always prevail in the general courfe of things, though they may fail in particular cafes; and it is the chief bufinefs of philofophers to regard the general courfe of things. I may add, that it is alfo the chief business of politicians; efpecially in the domeftic government of the state, where the public good, which is, or ought to be their object, depends on the concurrence of a multitude of caufes; not, as in foreign politics, on accidents and chances, and the caprices of a few perfons. This therefore makes the difference between particular deliberations.

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and general reasonings, and renders fubtilty and refinement much more fuitable to the latter than to the former.

I thought this introduction neceffary before the following difcourfes on commerce, money, intereft, balance of trade, &c. where, perhaps, there will occur fome principles which are uncommon, and which may feem too refined and fubtile for fuch vulgar fubjects. If falfe, let them be rejected: But no one ought to entertain a prejudice against them, merely because they are out of the common road.

The greatness of a state, and the happiness of its fubjects, how independent foever they may be fuppofed in fome respects, are commonly allowed to be infeparable with regard to commerce; and as private men receive greater fecurity, in the poffeffion of their trade and riches, from the power of the public, fo the public becomes powerful in proportion to the opulence and extenfive commerce of private men. This maxim is true in general; though I cannot forbear thinking, that it may poffibly admit of exceptions, and that we often establish it with too little reserve and limitation. There may be fome circumstances, where the commerce and riches and luxury of individuals, instead of adding strength to the public, will ferve only to thin its armies, and diminish its authority among the neighbouring nations. Man is a very variable being, and susceptible of many different opinions, principles, and rules of conduct. What may be true, while he adheres to one way of thinking, will be found falfe, when he has embraced an opposite set of manners and opinions.

The bulk of every ftate may be divided into hufbandmen and manufacturers. The former are employed in the culture of the land; the latter work up the materials

furnished

furnished by the former, into all the commodities which are neceffary or ornamental to human life. As foon as men quit their favage ftate, where they live chiefly by hunting and fishing, they must fall into thefe two claffes though the arts of agriculture employ at first the most numerous part of the fociety*. Time and experience improve fo much thefe arts, that the land may eafily maintain a much greater number of men, than those who are immediately employed in its cultivation, or who furnifh the more neceffary manufactures to fuch as are fo employed.

If thefe fuperfluous hands apply themfelves to the finer arts, which are commonly denominated the arts of luxury, they add to the happiness of the state; fince they afford to many the opportunity of receiving enjoyments, with which they would otherwife have been unacquainted. But may not another scheme be proposed for the employment of thefe fuperfluous hands? May not the fovereign Jay claim to them, and employ them in fleets and armies, to encrease the dominions of the ftate abroad, and spread its fame over diftant nations? It is certain that the fewer defires and wants are found in the proprietors and labourers of land, the fewer hands do they employ; and confequently the fuperfluities of the land, instead of maintaining tradesmen and manufacturers, may support fleets and armies to a much greater extent, than where a great many arts are required to minifter to the luxury

*Monf. MELON, in his political effay on commerce, afferts, that even at prefent, if you divide FRANCE into 20 parts, 16 are labourers or peasants; 2 only artizans; one belonging to the law, church, and military; and one merchants, financiers, and hourgeois. This calculation is certainly very erroneous. In FRANCE, ENGLAND, and indeed moft parts of EUROPE, half of the inhabitants live in cities; and even of those who live in the country, a great number are artizans, perhaps above a third,

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