the funds, and the extent of our system of life insurance, without being impressed with a deep sense of the vast importance of that confidence which the public have placed in the security of property, and, consequently, in the endurance of the present order of things, and the good faith of government. Had this confidence been imperfect, industry and invention would have been paralyzed; and much of that capital, which clothes and feeds the industrious classes, would never have existed. The maintenance of this security entire, both in fact and in opinion, is essential to the public welfare. If it be anywise impaired, the colossal fabric of our prosperity will crumble into dust; and the commerce of London, like that of Carthage, Palmyra, and Venice, will, at not a very remote period, be famous only in history. It is, therefore, of the utmost consequence, that in introducing the changes which the wants and altered circumstances of society require should be made in the frame of our polity, nothing be done to impair, but every thing to strengthen that confidence and security to which we are mainly indebted for the high and conspicuous place we have long occupied among the nations of the earth."*

Although the views here offered are generally correct, yet security has not been perfect in either country, as we shall show. It must, however, be borne in mind that there are no countries in which any occurrence tending to interfere with the rights of person or property, becomes so immediately known as in those of which we now treat. Thousands of persons might perish in Russia or in Turkey, without the knowledge of those who lived at a distance of a few hundred miles, while no disturbance, however trivial, in England or in the United States, can be concealed.t The local newspapers, desirous of giving interest to their co

• M'Culloch, Dictionary of Commerce.

"It should be observed, also, that in large towns, and in populous districts intersected by roads, which furnish a rapid conveyance of intelligence from place to place, and where newspapers are in constant use, much more in proportion is known of every enormity that is perpetrated than in remote country districts, thinly peopled, where there is less facility of mutual communication, and where their natural appetite for news is compelled to limit itself to the gossip of the nearest hamlet. Much apparent increase of crime, (I will not undertake to say how much,) consists, I am convinced, in the increase of newspapers; for crimes, especially (be it observed,) such as are the most remote from the experience of each individual, and therefore strike him as something strange, always furnish interesting articles of intelligence. I have no doubt that a single murder in Great Britain has often furnished matter for discourse to more than twenty times as many persons as any twenty such murders would in Turkey. We should remember, that there are not more particles of dust in the sunbeam than in any other part of the room, though we see them more where the light is stronger."— Whateley's Lectures, p. 197.

lumns, give all that occurs, and generally colour it as strongly as is necessary for that purpose.*

We have already shownf the extreme insecurity that existed in England in the time of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. At that time, population was small and the inferior soils only were cultivated; the means of subsistence were obtained with difficulty; the country abounded with "sturdy rogues," upon whom the magistrates dared not inflict punishment. With the extension of cultivation over the inferior soils security increased, yet during a large portion of the last century highway robbers abounded, and neither the persons nor property of travellers were secure. Even in the immediate vicinity of London, persons returning to town from their Sunday excursions, deemed it necessary to travel in large parties, that they might escape being robbed and maltreated. Within the last fifty years, there has been a rapid extension of cultivation-a rapid increase of population-and a great increase of security.

The whole number of persons convicted in 1834, for offences against the person, subjecting them to the punishments of death, transportation, or imprisonment for terms exceeding one year, was 207, being one in every 70,000 of the population of England and Wales. In the reign of Henry VIII. one in 2000 was hanged annually.

The author was present at the arrest of a slave, in a small country town, two years since, when the circumstances attending it were calculated to produce considerable excitement. The conduct of the people, accustomed to defer to the laws, was such as excited his admiration, yet, on the next day, he read a very detailed account of the riot that had taken place. He had been present, but the riot escaped his observation. + Part I. p. 63.

"Shooting, stabbing, administration of poison, with intent to murder,

65

"Sodomy, and assaults with intent to commit the same,

33

In the territory of the United States may be found almost every stage of society. In the country bordering on Mexico, and occupied by savages, there is no law known but that of force. Passing thence towards the east, we find in the Southern States the labouring classes in a state of slavery. In Arkansas, Missouri, and Mississippi, with a population respectively of 1, 2, and 3 to a square mile, a large proportion of which consists of slaves, the white man, far removed from courts, and judges, and officers of justice, goes always armed; he is prepared for offence or defence, and altercation terminates in combat, of which death is frequently the consequence.* The habit of deferring to the law exists in but a small degree. If individuals are injured they desire to redress themselves. If the community feel aggrieved, they resort to that barbarous mode of executing justice termed Lynch law. Passing eastward, we find in Tennessee 15, and in Kentucky 17 to a mile. In both, thirty years since, Lynch law was fully established, but the habit of obedience to the law has grown with the increased density of the population. In Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, we find a more advanced stage of society, attended with constantly increasing security.

In the north-west we find a different state of things. The absence of slavery frees the settler of Michigan and Illinois, from the necessity for carrying arms. Rencontres are more rare. The habit of obedience to the law more readily obtains. Passing thence to the eastward, through Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York, to Massachusetts, we find at each step population more dense, with a constant increase of security.

From 1820 to 1830, the whole number of persons sentenced,

"As we descend towards the south, to those States in which the constitution of society is more modern and less strong, where instruction is less general, and where the principles of morality, of religion, and of liberty, are less happily combined, we perceive that the talents and virtues of those who are in authority become more and more rare. Lastly, when we arrive at the new south-western States, in which the constitution of society dates from but yesterday, and presents an agglomeration of adventurers and speculators, we are amazed at the persons who are invested with authority, and we are led to ask by what force, independent of the legislation and of the men who direct it, the State can be protected, and society be made to flourish."-De Tocqueville, Vol. II. p. 53.

The murder of a member of the Legislature of Arkansas, by the Speaker of the House, while in session, is a striking illustration of the state of manners existing in new countries, settled by restless spirits who find themselves inconvenienced by the restraints of the law in the older States.

for crimes of all descriptions, to one year's imprisonment or more, amounted,

In Maryland, to one in 3,102; In New York, to one in 5,532,* Pennsylvania, 66 3,968; Massachusetts, " 5,555, showing a constant improvement with the increased density of population. A similar result is found in the State of Massachusetts, as her population increased in density—the number of criminals remaining stationary, while the population was increased one seventh. In New York, a similar result is observed -the criminals having been in the period from 1800 to 1810, one in 4,465, and from 1820 to 1830, one in 5,532. In Maryland, while population increased one eleventh, the number of criminals remained stationary.†

In Pennsylvania and Connecticut, the returns do not indicate a diminution of crime, but in making local inquiries there are almost always local causes of disturbance to be allowed for. Thus, in the latter, the governor states to the legislature, that "although the number of prisoners had increased, there is no evidence of a corresponding increase of crimes"-that since the system of discipline had been changed, "there had been a more thorough execution of the criminal law," &c. To ascertain the general law that security of person and property is increased with the increase of capital, and increased facility of obtaining subsistence from a diminished surface, it is only necessary to cast our eyes over Europe at the present moment, and compare the various nations-or to trace the progress of any one of them for centuries past-and when we find local departures from that law, we may be certain that they are apparent only, or result from local causes.

Of the whole number of crimes, those against the person were, In Massachusetts, 6.36 per cent.

This includes only those sentenced to two years' imprisonment. Were it, like the other statements, to include those sentenced to between one and two years, New York would occupy a medium place between Pennsylvania ani Massachusetts.

+ De Beaumont and De Tocqueville on the Penitentiary System of the United States, p. 262.

Quoted, ibid. p. 247.

§ Ibid. p. 244.

This would give,

In Massachusetts, one such crime to 86,871 persons,

Here, with the diminished density of population, we have a constant increase in such crimes, and passing west and south the proportion would continue to rise, as population became more scattered, until the highest point of insecurity should be attained, in the region of the Rocky Mountains.

Comparing Massachusetts with England and Wales, we find in the former 1 in 86,871 sentenced to one year's imprisonment or more; whereas, 1 in 70,000 is, in the latter, sentenced to more than one year. The number sentenced to one year or more, in England, is greater than in Pennsylvania. It is obvious that security is much greater in Massachusetts than in England, and consequently greater than in any other part of the world.

The members of a community frequently engaged in war with other communities, experience therefrom great insecurity. Liable to capture and imprisonment, the strongest reasons exist for remaining at home, and none will go abroad unless induced thereto by the prospect of realizing larger remuneration than would be deemed necessary in time of peace. Men who would be advantageously employed in exchanging in foreign countries the productions of their friends and neighbours, and would derive therefrom an abundant support, remain at home comparatively unproductively employed. Production is diminished, and the proportion required by those who incur the risks of foreign voyages is greatly increased. Such has been the condition of the people of England during about one half of the last one hundred and fifty years.

The United States, on the contrary, have pursued a peaceful course. Since the close of the war which established their independence, they have had a few months of hostilities with France, and a war of thirty months with Great Britain. These, with some disputes with the piratical powers of the coast of Africa, constitute the wars in which they have been engaged, and all of these were purely defensive. During nearly the whole period of the wars of the French Revolution, when almost the whole civilized world was engaged in warfare, they remained

The remarks made above attach equally to this statement, which does not contain those sentenced to between one and two years' imprisonment.