in almost every country, the most distinguished of which were Carthage, and Tarshish or Tartessus in Spain. The ships from the latter place undertook very distant voyages; hence sels, that performed long voyages, were called ships of Tarshish,

any ves

The commerce of the Phoenicians is mentioned .אָנִיּוֹת תַּרְשִׁישׁ

in the 27th and 28th chapters of Ezekiel, and the 23rd chapter of Isaiah.

The inhabitants of Arabia Felix had commercial intercourse with India. They carried some of the articles, which they brought thence, through the straits of Babelmandeb into Abyssinia and Egypt; some they transported to Babylon through the Persian gulf and the Euphrates; and some by the way of the Red sea to the port of Eziongeber. They thus became rich, though it is possible their wealth may have been much magnified by the ancients. The fame of the Egyptians, as a commercial nation, commenced with the reign of Necho and his successor Psammetichus. Their commerce, however, was not great, until Alexander had destroyed Tyre and built Alexandria.

§. 109. MERCANTILE ROUTEs,

The Phoenicians sometimes received the goods of India by way of the Persian gulf, where they had colonies in the islands of Dedan, Arad, and Tyre. Sometimes they received them from the Arabians, who either brought them by land through Arabia or up the Red sea to Eziongeber; from which port they transported them through the country by the way of Gaza to Phoenicia. The Phoenicians to their foreign goods added those which they themselves fabricated, and were thus enabled to supply all parts of the Mediterranean. The Egyptians originally received their goods from the Phoenicians, Arabians, Africans, and Abyssinians; in all of which countries, there are still the remains of large trading towns. But in a subsequent age, they imported goods from India in their own vessels, and eventually carried on an export trade with various ports in the Mediterranean. Oriental commerce, however, was chiefly carried on by land. Accordingly, vessels are rarely mentioned in the Bible, except in Ps. cvii. 23— 30, and in passages where the discourse turns upon the Phœnicians, or upon the naval affairs of Solomon and Jehoshaphat. The two principal routes from Palestine into Egypt, were the one along the shores of the Mediterranean from Gaza to Pelusium,

and the other from Gaza by the way of mount Sinai and the Elanitic branch of the Red sea.

§. 110. METHOD OF CARRYING GOODS BY LAND.

Although chariots were in use among the inhabitants of the east at an early period, yet the merchants transported their goods upon camels; animals, which are patient of thirst, and are easily supported in the deserts. For the purpose of security against depredations, the oriental merchants travelled in parties, as is common in the east at the present day. A large travelling company of this kind was called a caravan or carvan,,

A smaller one was called kafile or kafle, no, Greek vodía, Gen. xxxvii. 25; Judg. v. 6; Job, vi. 18— 20; Isaiah, xxi. 13; Jer. ix. 2; Luke. ii. 44. The furniture carried by the members of a caravan consisted of a mattress; a coverlet; a carpet for sitting upon; a round piece of leather, which answered the purpose of a table; a few pots and kettles of copper covered with tin; also a tin-plated cup, which was suspended before the breast under the outer garment, and was used for drinking, 1 Sam. xxvi. 11, 12, 16; leathern bottles for holding water, tents, lights and provisions in quality and abundance, as each one could afford, Ezek. xii. 3. Every caravan had a leader to conduct it through the desert, who was acquainted with the direction of its route, and with the cisterns and fountains. These he was able to ascertain, sometimes from heaps of stones, sometimes by the character of the soil, and when other helps failed him, by the stars, Numb. x. 29-32; Jer. xxxi. 21; Isaiah, xxi. 14. When all things are in readiness, the individuals, who compose the caravan, assemble at a distance from the city. The commander of the caravan, who is a different person from the conductor or leader, and is chosen from the wealthiest of its members, appoints the day of their departure. A similar arrangement was adopted among the Jews, whenever they travelled in large numbers to the city of Jerusalem. The caravans start very early, sometimes before day. They endeavour to find a resting place or station to remain at during the night, which will afford them a supply of water, Job, vi. 15— 20. They arrive at their resting place before the close of the day; and while it is yet light, prepare every thing that is necessary for the recommencement of their journey. In order to

I

prevent any one from wandering from the caravan and being lost during the night, lamps or torches are elevated upon poles and carried before it. The pillar of fire answered this purpose for the Israelites, when wandering in the wilderness. Sometimes the caravans lodge in cities; but when they do not, they pitch their tents so as to form an encampment, and during the night keep watch alternately. In the cities there are public inns, called khans and carava saries, in which the caravans are lodged without expense. They are large, square buildings, in the centre of which is an area or open court. Caravansaries are denominated in the Greek of the New Testament avooxetov, Katáλvois, and Kaтáλvμa, Luk, ii. 7; x. 34. The first mention of one in the Old Testament is in Jer. xli. 17, 7. It was situated near the city of Bethlehem.

§. 111. COMMERCE OF THE HEBREWS.

Although Palestine was well situated for commerce, yet Moses enacted no laws in its favour. The reason of this probably was, that the Hebrews who were designedly set apart to preserve the true religion, should not mingle with foreign idolatrous nations. He, therefore, merely inculcated good faith and honesty in buying and selling, Lev. xix. 35, 36; Deut. xxv. 1316. By the establishment, however, of three great festivals, some mercantile intercourse was produced. At these festivals all the adult males of the nation were yearly assembled at one place, when those who had articles to sell brought them, and such as wished to buy had an opportunity of so doing. As Moses, did not interdict foreign commerce, Solomon, at a later period; not only carried on a traffic in horses, as already stated, but sent ships from the port of Eziongeber through the Red sea to Ophir, (probably the coast of Africa) and had commercial intercourse even with Spain, 1 Kings, ix. 26; 2 Chron. ix. 21. This traffic, although a source of emolument, appears to have been neglected after the death of Solomon. The attempt made by Jehoshaphat to restore it, was frustrated by his ships being dashed upon the rocks and destroyed, 1 Kings, xxii, 48, 49; 2 Chron. xx. 36. Joppa, though not well adapted for the purpose, was properly the port of Jerusalem; and some of the large vessels, which went to Spain, sailed from it, Jonah, i. 3. In the age of Ezekiel, the commerce of Jerusalem was so great, that it was

envied even by the Tyrians, Ezek. xxvi. 2. After the captivity, a great number of Jews became merchants, and travelled for the purpose of traffic into all countries. About the year 150 B. C., prince Simon improved the port of Joppa. In the time of Pompey the Great, there were so many Jews constantly on the ocean, some in the character of pirates, that king Antigonus was accused before him of having equipped ships for piratical purposes. A new port was built by Herod at Cesarea.

§. 112. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Commerce could not be carried on without coin, nor without a system of weights and measures. Weights and measures were regulated in Asia at a very early period. Regulations with regard to them as far as concerned the Hebrews, were made by Moses, and models and standards were deposited in the tabernacle. Among the Jews and the Egyptians the priests had the care of these models and standards, which, after the time of Solomon were deposited in the temple; and when the temple was destroyed, they perished with it. The Hebrews, while in captivity, used, as might be expected, the weights and measures of their masters. The prophet Ezekiel evidently speaks of the latter; therefore, the weights and measures of the Jews, are to be distinguished into those before, and those after the captivity. Whenever they are mentioned by the Alexandrine translators, or by Josephus, they belong to the latter period. The nature of the weights and measures before the captivity cannot be accurately defined.

§. 113. MEASURES OF LENGTH.

Almost all nations have taken their measures of length from parts of the human body, and our knowledge of those which existed amongst the Jews before the captivity can only be derived from a reference to those parts.

I. 2, a finger or digit. Its length was about the breadth of a finger. [According to the tables, appended to the third volume of Horne's Introduction to the Scriptures, which are taken chiefly from Dr. Arbuthnot, the Jewish digit is 0.912th of an English inch.]

II.,, a palm, or four digits, otherwise called a

hand-breadth, 1 Kings, vii. 26; comp. 2 Chron. iv. v. Jer. lii.

21.

III., a span, viz. from the end of the thumb to the end of the little finger, or three palms, Exod. xxviii. 16; xxxix. 9; 1 Sam. xvii. 4.

IV. TN, a cubit. It extended from the elbow to the wrist, Ezek. xli. 8; or four palms, about the sixth part of the height of the human body, Deut. iii. 11; 1 Sam. xvii. 4. Ezekiel, chap. xl. 5; xliii. 13; mentions a cubit of five palms, i. e., the extent from the elbow to the knuckles. This appears to have been the Babylonian, or new cubit, of which mention is made in 2 Chron. iii. 3; comp. Herodot. i. 178. and Solinus, 56. 2.

V., a measure which was probably the length of a man's arm, Judg. iii. 16.

VI., a measuring reed of six cubits, or the length of the human body. Ezekiel, chap. xl. 5, mentions a Babylonian reed of a little more than six cubits in length.

VII. No, a Chaldaic word, Greek σràdio, a stadium or furlong. It was a Greek measure adopted by the Jews, and was one hundred and twenty-five geometrical paces in extent; or the six hundredth part of a degree, making one hundred and forty five English paces, four feet, and six tenths, John, vi. 19; xi. 18; Rev. xiv. 20; xxi. 16. The Egyptian furlong was sixty seven fathoms and two feet.

VIII. "Odos σaßßárov, a sabbath day's journey, viz. seven hundred and twenty-nine English paces and three feet, Acts, i. 12. This measure is a sort of Jewish invention founded on Exod. xvi. 29.

IX. Míλov, a Roman mile, being eight furlongs, or a thousand geometrical paces, Matt. v. 41.

X., a little way, Gen. xxxv. 16; 2 Kings, v. 19; according to the Septuagint, a horse's race, inódpoμos, i. e., as the Arabians inform us, a parasang, by which word the phrase is translated in the Peshito. It was about four English miles.

XI., a day's journey. It is sometimes greater and sometimes less, varying from twenty to thirty miles, see Herodot. v. 53.