Gottlieb Daimler, in 1885, drove, in Germany, a bicycle powered by a gasoline engine of his own invention. In 1890, at Montrouge, France, Fernand Forest put his 4-cylinder engine, its carburetor, its watercooling system, and its magneto ignition on a wagon chassis-thereby creating, it is said, the first 4-cylinder automobile. In 1892 (April 19), the first gasoline automobile in the U. S. was operated by its inventor, C. E. Duryea, who also won the first American contest, in Chicago, Nov. 1895. On July 4, 1894, Elwood Haynes drove to Kokomo, Ind., a gasoline automobile of his own invention. The Duryea and Haynes machines are in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Movable type.-Their origin is obscure. Wooden type preceded metal. Laurens Janszoon Koster, of Haarlem, Holland (1370-1450), printed from movable type, about 1438, and used his own ink. Johann Gansfleisch (1397-1468), commonly called Gasoline, high octane. Resin, synthetic (methyl methacrylate) Sulfanilamide, therapeutic use of.. 1931 Hill....... 1935 Domagk.....German Gutenberg, because his mother came from there, was the first to make cut metal type, from which, in partnership with a goldsmith named Johann Fust, he printed, in Germany, at Mainz on the Rhine, a number of copies of St. Jerome's' Latin translation of the Bible, 1450-5. This was the Vulgate Bible, first printed Bible. Leonardo da Vinci was an inventor and builder as well as a painter. Models of 175 of his inventions have been shown in the Museum of Science and Industry, N. Y. City-steam cannon, armored car, alarm clock, olive oil press, flying machine and many others. Speech was transmitted by electrical means in Germany by Philipp Reis of Friedrichsdorff 10 years before Bell's venture. His original instruments are in the South Kensington Museum in London. Edouard Branley, a French physicist, invented the coherer, which had a part in the development of radiography-the means of detecting and receiving wireless impulses. The Wonders of the Ancient World Source: Historical Records Pyramids of Egypt-Beginning at Gizeh, opposite | reservoir on the top terrace and was piped down Cairo, the pyramids stretch for 60 miles south on to the gardens. They date from about 600 B.C. the west bank of the Nile. They date from about Temple of Diana in Asia Minor at Ephesus, an ancient but now vanished city on the east side of 3000-1800 B. C. The most ancient is the famous the Aegean Sea, south of Smyrna, was built in step-pyramid at Saggara, tomb of Zoser, the the Fifth Century B.C. by the Ionian cities, as a second king of the third dynasty, about 3000 B. C. joint monument, from plans by the architect The pyramids were built with forced labor, it is Ctesiphon. The building was of marble, 425 x 225 said. The workers were let go home only at feet, and the roof was supported by 127 columns of planting and harvest time. Parian marble, each 60 feet high and each weighing In May, 1939, at Sakkara, a few miles south-about 150 tons. In 356 B.C., the temple was burned west of Cairo, a tomb was found and opened, off- by Herostratus, a crank. cially described as that of Pharaoh Zer, second King of the first dynasty. It contained a collection of copper swords, daggers, ivory, gaming pieces and other items. In March, 1939, a tomb was opened at the ancient city of Tanis, in the Nile Delta, and therein was discovered, in a silver sarcophagus, the mummy of one of the five pharaohs or Kings named Sheshonq, who ruled Egypt in the 22nd dynasty, beginning in 950 B. C. It was at first thought the mummy was of King Psou-sen-nes, a father-in-law of King Solomon. The first Sheshonq conquered Jerusalem in the reign of Rehoboam. The two skeletons in the chamber with the mummy were presumably those of servants. They were so decomposed it was impossible to determine their identity. On one a long carnelian necklace was still intact. Also found in the chamber were canopic silver vases with covers, some shaped as heads of animals, others as heads of humans. The tomb of Psou-sen-nes, who ruled in the 21st dynasty, was located and opened, near Tanis, early in 1940. The sarcophagus containing the mummy was of solid silver. The head of the mummy was encased in a mask of pure gold, similar to that of King Tut-ankh-Amen, and the rest of whose body was covered by silver gilt. In the sarcophagus were found many bracelets and necklaces, golden cases for the fingers and toes, a pair of golden shoes and other pieces of jewelry, which adorned the mummy. The dampness of the Delta region had caused the mummy to decompose, leaving only a handful of bones. Since most of the ornaments were made of gold, they have been hardly affected by climatic conditions. Also found was the tomb of King Amenemopet, son of Psou-sen-nes. The Great Pyramid is that of the tyrant Pharaoh Cheops, and was, when intact, 481 feet high, and 756 feet square at the base. It is now 450 feet high, 746 feet square at the base, and covers nearly 13 acres. It contained, it is said, 2,300,000 blocks of diorite, a hard pale bluestone. The Cheops quarries were discovered early in 1938, in an unsurveyed part of the desert, near the Sudan frontier 60 miles or more from the Nile. South of Luxor (ancient Thebes) is the tomb of young King Tutankhamen (1350 B.C.), discovered by Howard Carter in 1922. He was the son-in-law of King Akhenaten and Queen Nefertiti, and before going on the throne was Prince Tutankhaten. Sphinx, near Gizeh, is a great wingless crouching lion with a human head, hewn by order of Chephren, son of Cheops, or soon after Chephren's death. It had been rejected for the pyramid because it consisted of layers of hard gray and soft yellow stone. The body of the Sphinx was painted red, the headdress white, the eyes had a natural coloring. Its body is 150 feet long, the head 30 feet long, the front paws 50 feet long. The face is 14 feet wide. The distance from the crown of the head to the base of the figure is 70 feet. Being situated in a hollow it has been covered with windblown sand from time to time. The Sphinx was dug out in the 18th Dynasty, and was worshiped as the sun god. The Romans (100 B.C.) restored it. In the Middle Ages the Arabs called it Father of Fear. Also in the Pyramid area, Hassan discovered. in 1935, two so-called sun boats, hewn in the rock south of the cult temple. It was an ancient Egyptian belief that every king, after his death, was like the sun god Ra and, like the sun, must make a journey daily from the East to the West. To be reborn each day in the East he must return at night from West to East. To make these two trips daily, he had two boats-a day boat and a night boat. The latter was called a resurrection boat. Hanging Gardens of Babylon were near the Euphrates River, in the palace of King Nebuchadnezzar, 60 miles south of the present City of Bagdad, and not far from the eastern border of the Syrian Desert of Northern Arabia. The terraced gardens, planted with flowers and small trees, with fountains and refectories interspersed, were 75 to 300 feet above the ground. Water was stored in a Statue of Jupiter Olympus, in the valley of Olympia, province of Elis, 12 miles or so inland from the west coast of the southern peninsula of Greece, which anciently was called the Peloponnesus, was begun by the Greek sculptor Phidias after he had been banished from Athens in 432 B.C. It was of marble encrusted with ivory and the draperies were of beaten gold. Tomb of Mausolus, King of Caria, in Asia Minor, at Halicarnassus, on the eastern side of the Aegean Sea opposite Greece, was built of marble about 352 B.C., by Queen Artemisia, the widow. was named Mausoleum, and was remarkable for its beauty and its magnificent interior. It was destroyed by an earthquake. Pharos of Alexandria, a white marble lighthouse or watch-tower on the island of Pharos, in the port of Alexandria, Egypt, was completed by King Ptolemy Philadelphus 265-247 B.C. The island had been joined by Alexander the Great to the mainland of Egypt by a causeway when he founded Alexandria. The structure cost $850,000. It was over 400 feet high. It was partly razed in the 5th Century, A.D., and was destroyed in 1375 by an earthquake. Colossus of Rhodes was a brass statue of the Greek sun-god Apollo, 70 cubits (about 109 feet) high, erected by Charles of Lindus at the port of the City of Rhodes, on the island of Rhodes, in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, off the coast of Asia Minor, north of Alexandria. It took 12 years to build, cost 300 talents ($258,000). was completed about 280 B.C. and was thrown down 224 B.C. by an earthquake. Great Wall of China, dating from the Third Century B.C., extended along the Northern frontier of that country, from the northern part of the Gulf of Pechili, on the Yellow Sea, north of Peking (Peiping) in a zigzag course, to Syning, on the border of Turkestan. Prof. Geil, in 1908. after visiting both ends of it and several intermediate points, estimated the total length of the Great Wall, including all known spurs, curves, and loops, at 2,550 miles; with 25,000 watch-towers built into the wall and 15,000 detached watch-towers. The air-line distance between the point where the wall reaches the sea at Shanhaikwan and the western terminus, identified by Geil on the Great White River west of Suchow in the pan-handle of Kansu Province, is 1,145 miles. The wall which has crumbled into heaps in many places was, at Kalgan (as measured in 1900 by Col. H. B. Ferguson), 17 feet 6 inches thick and 16 feet high, made of two walls of large brick, filled between with earth and stones. It was built by the Emperor Shih Huang-ti, by forced labor, as a measure of national defense, and has so continued to the present day. Tower of Babel, at the Chaldean City of Ur in lower Mesopotamia, has completely disappeared. The base of the tower was 300 x 300 feet, tapering through 7 stages to the Shrine at the top. The height also was 300 feet. A smaller Tower of Babel was the Ziggurat at Ur, 195 x 130 feet at the base. and probably more than 150 feet high. Stonehenge, an assemblage of huge shaped stones in 3 circles, one within another, on Salisbury Plain, 90 miles or so southwest of London, England. The outer circle is 100 feet in diameter, the next within is 75 feet in diameter, and the circle inside that one has a diameter of 40 feet. Extending around the outer circle is a deep trench 333 feet in diameter. The stones of the outer circle, originally about 30 in number, average 12 x 6 x 3 feet, fastened in couples by blocks fixed across the tops. The stones in the inner circles are smaller. The Circus Maximus, at Rome, built 605 B.C.. by King Tarquin and rebuilt and enlarged by Julius Caesar some years before the birth of Christ. was 312 feet high, 1,875 feet long, and 625 feet wide. It then held 150,000 spectators, but the capacity was increased to 385.000 in the Fourth Century A.D. The place was used for games and for horse and chariot races. Coliseum, or Colosseum, at Rome, one of the largest amphitheatres in the world, was begun by the Emperor Vespasian and finished by the Em peror Domition, 82 A.D. In 238 A.D. a fourth story was added. The ruins still stand. The building, elliptical, was 615 x 510 feet, and the floor of the arena was 281 x 176 feet. The walls were concrete; the seats, marble; 50,000 persons could sit; 20,000 could stand. The cost was 10,000,000 crowns ($15,000,000). The work of construction was done by 12.000 slaves from Jerusalem. Wild animals were kept in dens under the floor. Thousands of persons, including early Christians, perished in combats with lions and tigers. Gladiators also fought there. Appian Way, built 313 B.C. by Censor Appius Claudius, 360 miles long, extending from Rome south to Capua, above Naples, and thence to the East, across Italy to Brindisi (then called Brundusium), on the Adriatic Sea, opposite Turkey. It was the highway to the Levant. the south, where they established a new Cambodian Capital at Pnom Penh. Temple of Karnak, in Egypt, built 3,500 years ago and now in ruins, inclosed 912 acres of ground, but it was a low structure, consisting of a series of connected halls, with open courts. Palace of Shah Jehan, the Mogul emperor at Delhi, India, erected in the first half of the 17th century, inclosed more than 100 acres, the walls forming courts by meeting various wings. The building proper covered about 53 acres, the wing occupied by the women of the harem and the eunuchs covering 20 acres. The British destroyed most of the palace during the Indian Mutiny, excepting the private audience chamber. In the Great Audience Chamber was the Peacock Throne, covered with gems. Palace of Pluto, discovered in 1939, is 150 feet Leaning Tower of Pisa, begun in 1173 A.D., at beneath the King's Palace, at the 900-foot level Pisa, Italy, by Romano Pisano and William of of the Carlsbad Caverns in New Mexico. There are Innsbruck, and finished in 1350, was intended to three vast chambers in Pluto's Palace in addition stand upright, but commenced to tip during con- to those in Carlsbad Caverns. Together they are struction, owing to clay in the soil, which grad- great forests of stalactites, stalagmites, and other ually gave way on one side, until the round 8-story forms fashioned in limestone during some 60 milmarble building was 16 feet out of the perpendic-lion years, including gigantic carvings of reptileular, and was 181 ft. high on the north side and like creatures larger than the ancient dinosaurs. 179 on the south. It is still sinking at a low rate They may be only accidental mimicries by nature according to Dr. Dimitri P. Krynine of Yale rather than petrified remains. The King's Palace University, research associate in soil mechanics. is 4,000 feet long, 600 feet wide, and varies in In accordance with an order by Premier Mussolini, height from 200 to 375 feet. One of the Chambers since 1932 more than 1,000 tons of high-strength in the Palace of Pluto is approximately as large. cement have been injected into the foundation In France and Spain there are caves on the through 361 holes, each two inches in diameter. walls of which are drawings by prehistoric men From September, 1934, to April 1935, the movement of the animals of their day. And in caves throughof the top of the tower was studied with an out North America, Europe and Asia are fossil reinclinometer" designed by Girometti-Bonechi. mains of human beings, animals, fishes, insects. "The results were almost incredible," Dr. Krynine trees, etc. In the United States are many limesaid. "During September, 1934, the tower moved stone caverns, such as Mammoth Cave. They are north, but at the end of that month turned around all wonders of both the ancient and the modern and moved south. This continued up to the end of world. January when the movement toward the north started again for a couple of months. At the same time the tower was persistently moving eastward. Of course, all these movements are microscopically small." Porcelain Tower of Nankin was built in that ancient capital of South China in the early part of the 15th Century. It was an octagonal 8-story tower, 261 feet high. The Taiping revolutionists destroyed it in 1853. Floating Gardens of Xochimilco, in Mexico. When the Spaniards entered the central basin they were surprised by the sight of large, orderly arranged settlements in the midst of great fields of blossoms intersected by canals along which a brisk traffic was in progress. This landscape, fashioned by the Indians in the shallow lake of Xochimilco. has persisted from the 13th Century until the present. Between the canals the Indians had built small artificial islands known as chinampas, upon which flowers and vegetables were grown. The Angkor, a ruined temple city in Cambodia, in French Indo-China. Until 1907, it was in the prov-islands" were formed of rafts of decaying vegeince of Battambong, in Siam. Then it went to France, by treaty. The city was founded at the end of the Ninth Century by Yacovarman, king of the Khmers, and lasted until the middle of the Thirteenth Century when the Siamese drove them to tation, reeds and roots, which were anchored by thrusting quick-growing slips of Salix Bonplandiana through them. The term "floating garden" is therefore incorrect, and the reports of earlier travelers were based on a misconception. Mount Vernon and the Tomb of Washington Source: Officials of the Institution Mount Vernon, on the west shore of the Potomac, sixteen miles below Washington, is part of a large tract of land in Northern Virginia which was originally included in a royal grant made to Lord Culpepper, who, in 1674, granted five thousand acres to Nicholas Spencer and John Washington. The division between Spencer and Washington put John Washington's son Lawrence in possession of the Washington half in 1690. Later it became the property of Lawrence Washington's son Augustine, the father of George Washington. Lawrence Washington, elder half brother of George Washington, is said to have built the original house (1743) and renamed the plantation Mount Vernon, in honor of Admiral Vernon, under whom he had served in the West Indies. Lawrence Washington died in 1752 and two years later the title passed to George Washington. To Mount Vernon (1759) George Washington took his wife, who was Martha Dandridge Custis, widow of Daniel Parke Custis, and here he lived the life of a southern planter during the years preceding the American Revolution. From Mount Vernon he went forth to become Commander-inChief of the revolutionary forces, and to Mount Vernon he returned (1783). At this time the remodeling of the mansion, which had been planned before the Revolution, was completed. The buildings, gardens and grounds were enlarged and developed in accordance with General Washington's own plans. The mansion and thirteen other buildings can still be seen today, and much of the original furniture has been restored. From Mount Vernon General Washington again went forth (April 14, 1789) by highway, ferry and barge to become the first president of the United States, and returned to it after eight years of service. Two years later, (1799) he died and was buried there. The Mount Vernon mansion and surrounding plantation was left to General Washington's nephew, Judge Bushrod Washington, and by him bequeathed to his nephew John A. Washington, whose son, John Augustine Washington, became the last private owner of Mount Vernon. Two hundred acres, including the Mansion and Tomb were acquired (1859) by the Mount Vernon Ladies' Assoclation of the Union, after both the government of the United States and the Commonwealth of Virginia had declined to purchase the estate. This Association, founded by Miss Ann Pamela Cunningham of South Carolina, is the oldest patriotic association of women in America. It is incorporated under the laws of Virginia and holds Mount Vernon "in trust for the people of the United States." The Mansion and grounds are open to visitors every day during the year, including Sundays and holidays. The Association is pledged to restore the Mansion and its surroundings as far as possible to their appearance in Washington's time, and to preserve the home and tomb of Washington for future generations. The income derived from the entrance fee of 25 cents maintains the estate. The organization consists of a Regent and Vice Regents representing the various states, who serve without remuneration. The present regent is Mrs. Horace Mann Towner, elected in 1937. General Washington wrote of Mount Vernon: "No estate in the United States is more pleasantly situated than this. It lies in a high, dry and healthy country, 300 miles by water from the sea, and on one of the finest rivers in the world. I can truly say I had rather be at Mount Vernon with a friend or two about me than to be attended at the seat of government by the officers of state and the representatives of every power in Europe." Name English Rulers Source: Official Government Records SAXONS AND DANES Egbert... Son of Ealhmund, of Kent, King of Wessex, founded Heptarchy. Ethelred.. Fourth son of Ethelwulf, killed by Danes in battle. Edmund. Brother of Athelstan, murdered by a freebooter. Edred, Edwy. Edward Brother of Edmund.... Eldest son of Edmund, died of grief. 979 17 940 946 25 6 958 18 3 958 975 32 17 975 979 1016 48 37 "The Martyr," Son of Edgar, drove out Oslac, the Earl, murdered HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET 1066 1066 44 1066 1087 60 1087 1100 43 21 1350 213 13 1100 1135 67 35 Son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, by Matilda, only daughter of Henry I. 1272 1154 1189 56 35 1272 1307 68 35 Edward II. 1307 1327 Edward III.. 1327 1377 65 50 1377 1399 50 17 65 56 Richard II. Eldest surviving son of Edward I; deposed by Parliament, Jan. 7,1327. Son of Black Prince and grandson of Edward III (deposed). Son of John of Gaunt (Ghent), 4th son of Edward III. Henry VI.... Only son of Henry V. (deposed 1461), died in the Tower of London. HOUSE OF TUDOR Henry VII... Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tudor, by Katherine, widow of Henry VIII. Only surviving son of Henry VII.; 2 of his 6 queens were beheaded.. James I..... Son of Mary Queen of Scots, granddaughter of James IV., and Charles I....Only surviving son of James I.; beheaded at London. COMMONWEALTH DECLARED MAY 19, 1649 The Crom- Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector... wells...... Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector, resigned May 25, 1659. Charles II... Eldest son of Charles I, died without issue.. and Mary liidest Waum Prince of Orange, by Mary, daughter of Charles I.) Anne.. daughter of James II. and wife of William III. George I....Son of Elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth George II... Only son of George I., married Caroline of Brandenburg. George IV... Eldest son of George III., married Caroline of Brunswick. Edward VII. Eldest son of Victoria, married Alexandra, Princess of Denmark... George V.... 1923, Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon; acceded to throne, Dec.11; 1422 The name of the Royal Family was changed to Windsor by a proclamation (July 17, 1917). The first royal Stuart was Robert II (1316-1390). He was called the "Steward," and was a son of Walter, the Steward of Scotland by the latter's wife, Marjorie, daughter of King Robert the Bruce. James VI of Scotland succeeded to the throne of England as James I and was crowned in 1603 Margaret (1286), the "Maiden of Norway," granddaughter of Alexander, was recognized by the States of Scotland although a female, an infant, and a foreigner. She died on her passage to Scotland. the competition for the vacant throne, Edward I of England decided in favor of John Balliol. Welsh Sovereigns and Princes Source: National Chronicles of the Country Llywelyn ap Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. English Princes, Since A.D. 1301 728 Edward, b. 1284 (Edwd. II), cr. Pr. of Wales In Independent Princess, A.D. 630 to 1292 1240 Cadwallawn, King of Gwynedd. 630 1246 Cadwaladyr, his son.. 634 Idwal, son 661 Rhodri, or Roderic. Cynan and Howel Mervyn, son-in-law Rhodri the Great, son Anarawd, son of Rhodri 1301 755 1343 1376 1399 877 Hywel Dda, the Good 943 Iago ab Idwal (or Ieuaf) 948 Hywel ab Ieuaf, the Bad. 972 Edward of Westminster, son of Henry VI Edward of Westminster (Edward V) Edward, son of Richard III (d. 1484). Arthur Tudor, son of Henry VII 1454 1471 1483 1489 Henry Tudor (Hen. VIII), s. of Henry VII Henry Stuart, son of James I (d. 1612) Charles Stuart (Charles I), s. of James I. Charles (Charles II), son of Charles I 1503 1610 1616 1630 Llewelyn ap Sitsyhlt 1015 James Francis Edward, "The Old Pretender" Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig.. 1023 (d. 1766) 1688 Gruffydd ap Llywelyn ap Seisyll 1039 George Augustus (Geo. II), s. of George I 1714 Bleddyn ap Cynfyn 1067 Frederick Lewis, s. of George II (d. 1751). George William Frederick (George III) George Augustus Frederick (George IV) Albert Edward (Edward VII). 1729 1751 1762 1841 Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd. Llywelyn Fawr, the Great. 1901 1910 1169 George (George V) 1194 Edward (installed July 13, 1911). Russian (Muscovy) Rulers Source: Historical Records Dukes of Kief (Kiev)-(850) Ruric or Rurik: (879) Oleg; (913) Igor I; (945) Olga, his widow: (955) Swiatoslaw I; (973) Jaropalk I; (980) Valdimir; (1015) Swiatopalk; (1018) Jaroslaf; (1054) Isiaslaf I; (1073) Swiatoslaw II; (1078) Wsewolod I; (1093) Swiatopalk II; (1113) Vladimir II: (1125) Mitislaf; (1132) Jaropalk II: (1138) Wiatschelaw, and Wsewolod II; (1146) Isiaslaf II, and Igor II; (1153) Rotislaf; (1149) Jurie, or George I, who built Moscow. Grand Dukes of Vladimir-(1157) Andrew I: (1175) Michael I; (1177) Wsewolod III: (1213) Jurie, or George II; (1217) Constantine: (1238) Jaraslaf II, then his son: (1245) Alexander-Nevski: (1263) Jaraslaf III; (1270) Vasali, or Basil I: (1275) Dmitri, or Demetrius I; (1281) Andrew II: (1294) Daniel-Alexandrovitz; (1303) Jurie, or George III, deposed; (1305) Michael III: (1320) Vasali, or Basil II; (1325) Jurie or George III, restored; (1327) Alexander II. Grand Dukes of Moscow-(1328) Ivan, or John I; (1340) Simeon; (1353) John II; (1359) Demetrius II. Prince of Susdal; (1362) Demetrius III, Donskoi; (1389) Basil III, Temnoi; (1425) Basil IV. Czars of Muscovy-(1462) Ivan (Basilovitz), or John III (took title of Czar, 1482); (1505) Basil v; (1533) Ivan, the Terrible; (1584) Feodor, or Theodor 1, and his son, Demetrius; (1598) Boris Godonov, usurper; (1605) Feodor II: (1606) Demetrius, impostor, a Polish monk, succeeded by Vasali-Chouiski; (1610) Ladislaus of Poland; (1613) Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanov. descended from John III (1645) Alexis, his son: (1676) Feodor III; (1682) Ivan V, and Peter I brothers of Feodor III. foregoing, since known as Peter the Great (took Czars, or Emperors, of Russia-Peter I, the the title of emperor in 1721); (founded the city of St. Petersburg, later called Petrograd, and, still later, Leningrad); (1725) Catherine, his widow: (1727) Peter II, son of Alexis Petrovitz, and grandson of Peter the Great; deposed; (1730) Anne, Duchess of Courland, daughter of the Czar Ivan: (1740) Ivan VI, infant, grand-nephew of Peter the Great, kept in prison, murdered in 1764; (1741) Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great: (1762) Peter III, son of Anne, deposed and succeeded by his consort, Catherine II, known as Catherine the Great, daughter of a Prussian general of high rank; (1796) Paul, her son, murdered in 1801: (1810) Alexander I, son of Paul; (1825) Nicholas I. brother of Alexander I; (1855) Alexander II, son of Nicholas; assassinated: (1881) Alexander III: (1894) Nicholas II, son of Alexander III. The czar and his family were assassinated in 1918. He had abdicated in 1917, after the revolution of March 12. The General Secretary of the Communist Party, Joseph Vissarionovitch Stalin, was chosen premier of Soviet Russia in 1941, just before the Germans began the war against his country "to abolish Bolshevism." |