29

calculations by Dr. Oswald Gerhart, emerl-
tus professor at the Konigstadt Realgym-
nasium, Berlin, who concludes also, that
the Savior was 30 years old at the time of
his death. This was in the reign of the
Roman Emperor Tiberius. Designation by
Pope Pius XI of 1933 as a Holy Year con-
tinued the Roman Catholic Church in its
ancient belief that the Crucifixion was on
Friday, April 3, 33 A.D.

43 The Roman Emperor, Claudius, husband of
Messalina, took with him to Britain many
elephants, camels, and African black men,
with which his generals defeated the Bri-
tons at the Battle of Brentwood, between
London and Colchester. The blacks were
used to slash with sharp knives the legs
of the horses of the British chariots.
61 Queen Boadicea and her English army cap-
tured and burned London and put 70,000
to the sword; in the same year she was de-
feated by the Romans, under Paulinus.
who massacred 80,000; she poisoned herself
to death.

their leaders was Peter the Hermit, a preacher. 1191 Teutonic Order, Military Knights, established in the Holy Land to take care of the sick and wounded in the Third Crusade. On their return to Germany they subdued and Christianized by Papal authority the people of Prussia.

1206

Genghis Khan, founder of Mogul (Tartar)
Empire, begins his rule, conquers China,
1215; Central Asia, 1221; under his son
Ogdai, the Tartars swept over Hungary,
Poland, Silesia, and Moravia.

1215 King John of England granted Magna Carta
(June 19-July 15?) to the Barons. He did
not sign the document which did not grant
trial by jury in the modern sense. Runny-
mede Meadow, on the South side of the
Thames and Charter Island, in the river.
on one of the other of which the charter
was signed, were given to Britain by Lady
Fairhaven, daughter of the late H. H.
Rogers, a New York capitalist. She bought
them in 1929.

64 Burning of Rome; first persecution of Chris- 1233
tians, under Emperor Nero. Among the
martyrs, it is said, were the Apostles Peter
and Paul. The persecutions were renewed
under Domitian, in 95; and were continued
at intervals until and under Diocletian,
303-313.

70 Jerusalem destroyed by Titus.

79 Pompeii and Herculaneum destroyed by eruption of Mt. Vesuvius.

313 Constantine converted to Christianity: baptized in 337, on his deathbed; Christianity discarded by his successor, Julian, in 361, but restored by Jovian in 363.

The

The Inquisition established in Spain by Pope Gregory IX: revived there in 1480, when 185,000 Jews filed, leaving in Spain 50,000 Jews who had become baptized as Roman Catholics; inquisition suppressed by Napoleon in Spain in 1808; restored in 1814: the Holy Office abolished in 1834. Inquisition soon after its establishment. included sorcery (witchcraft) within its jurisdiction and classed it with heresy. 1259-92 Reign of Mongol Emperor, Kublai Khan, at Pekin China. 1282 "Sicilian Vespers," massacre of thousands of French Mch. 30, at Palermo, Italy. 1295 First regular English Parliament, composed of the clergy, barons, and knights, presided over by the King, Edward 1. Outbreak of the "Black Death" plague in Europe.

1348
1360

323 Council Nicaea; Nicene creed formulated.
330 Roman capital moved to Byzantium, hence-
forth known as Constantinople.
400 This was formerly the generally accepted date
for the beginning of the so-called Dark Ages.
or Middle Ages, which were supposed to
close at 1500 A.D.
410 Sacking of Rome by Alaric, the Goth; by
Genseric, in 455; city taken by Odoacer, in
476; by the Goths, in 546; by Narses, in 553.
476 End of the Western Roman Empire. The
City of Rome was destroyed, not by the
Goths but by an earthquake, according to
antiquarians who base their conclusions 1431
on an examination of the remains of the
Trajan Forum. Row on row of immense
granite columns were found, lying on their
sides in perfect alignment.

570 Mohammed born, at Mecca; fled to Medina
(the Hejira) in 622; poisoned to death by a
Jewess, it is said, in 632.

624-32 Saracen conquest of Arabia; of Persia.

632-651; of Syria, 634-637; of Egypt, 640-
646; the Saracens (Arab Mohammedans)
crossed the Mediterranean into Spain in
711 and founded the Moorish Kingdom
there in 756; last of the Moors driven from
power in 1492, with the fall of the King-
dom of Granada. In 1518 the Moors
founded the piratical states of Algiers and
Tunis, in North Africa.

930 Vikings established first Parliament in Ice-
land.

940 Library of Alexandria, Egypt (700,000 volumes or rolls), burned by order of Caliph Omar. For 6 months they were fed as fuel to the public baths.

Birth of Richard Whittington, who died in
1423; after having been thrice Lord Mayor
of London. The story of "Whittington and
his cat" persists to this day.

1381 Wat Tyler's rebellion, England.
1415 John Huss burned at stake at Constance, in
Baden, July 6 or 7; his friend, Jerome of
Prague, was burned there on May 30, 1416.
Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, was burned
at the stake, May 30, at Rouen, in France.
at the age of nineteen. She had been
found guilty of sorcery and heresy. The
prosecutor was the Bishop of Beauvais.
backed by the University of Paris. At the
head of royal French soldiery she had
driven the English troops, in 1429, from
the City of Orleans, but they captured her
in 1430.
1453 Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Em-
pire, taken by the Turks May 29, and made
capital of the Ottoman Empire.
1476 William Caxton inaugurated English printing
in England, near Westminster Abbey, Lon-
don. In 1474, in Bruges, Belgium, with
Colard Mansion, he had issued his Recuyell
of the Historyes of Troye, the first book
printed in English. His Dictes and Sayings
of the Philosophers, published in 1477, is
said to have been the first book actually
printed in England.

1481

982 Erik (The Red) Thorvaldson, father of Lief Ericson (Eriksson) is said to have dis- 1484 covered the east coast of Greenland.

1000 Lief Ericson, of Iceland, sailed with his Norse men to what is supposed to have been the New England coast.

1014 Brian Boru (Boroimhe), Irish King and his troops defeated the Danish invaders, at Clontarf. He and his son and grandson 1492 were slain in battle.

1020 Jews banished from England by Canute; they
returned in 1066; banished again, in 1290;
Cromwell admitted them, in 1650.

1066 Battle of Hastings, conquest of England by
William of Normandy. Harold II slain, Oct.
14.
1096-99 The first of the Crusades (Godfrey of
Bouillon, leader); capture of Jerusalem;
second Crusade, 1147-49, under Conrad III
and Louis VII; third, 1189-92, under Fred-
erick Barbarossa, Philip II, Richard Coeur
de Lion, Acre captured; fourth, 1202-4, un-
der Count Baldwin of Flanders; fifth, 1228-
9. under Frederick II; sixth, 1248-54, under
Louis IX (St. Louis). The first Crusaders
established the Latin Kingdom of Jerusa-
lem, a feudal monarchy, 1100-1291. One of

The African slave trade was begun, by Portu-
guese, and by 1777 over 9,000,000 Negroes
had been carried to other continents.
Bull issued by Pope Innocent VIII condemn-
ing witchcraft, which he said was preva-
lent in South Germany. There were other
papal bulls or briefs in 1500, 1521, and 1533.
Up to 1698 about 100,000 so-called witches
were executed, mostly by burning, in Ger-
many.
Christopher Columbus (Cristoforo Colombo)
discovered America Oct. 12 when he sighted
an island (Guanahani) in the Bahamas
supposed to have been (Watlings Island)
San Salvador. But according to Prof. Luis
Ulloa, Director of the Peruvian National
Library, at Lima, Columbus first visited
America on a voyage with Danish corsairs,
who sailed from Iceland to Greenland, Lab-
rador, Newfoundland, and the American
continent. Who was Columbus? It is now
said that he was the son of a wool weaver of
Genoa, Italy, belonged to a family of con-
verted Jews which had settled about 1391 in
Genoa, having come from Catalonia, Spain,
where the name was Colom. The family
also had dwelt in Castile, under the name
of Colon, and Cristoforo became Cristobal.
Columbus was a Catholic. On his first West

1492

Indian voyage, he left 40 of his men to 1568 Ivan IV, the Terrible, Czar of Russia, orfound the colony of Navidad, maybe on the north coast of Haiti. When he returned there in Dec., 1493, there was no sign of the colony and all the Spaniards were gone. Jews expelled from Spain. Banishment of Mohammedans began in 1499, that of Moors (900,000) in 1508. The Jews previously had been expelled in the 7th Century. 1497 John Cabot discovered or explored east coast 1572 of Canada. June 24. His son Sebastian accompanied him on the second voyage, in 1498.

ganized a band of secret police (Oprichniki) and "purged" his country of those who had plotted to kill his son. Hundreds were tried and executed as traitors. Finally the Oprichniki were "purged," and their chiefs, Basmaner and Skurator, were killed, as traitors. Ivan proposed to Queen Elizabeth of England. but she declined his offer. St. Bartholomew Day massacre of Huguenots (Protestants) at Paris, France, Aug. 24, following the marriage of Henry of Navarre and Margaret of Valois. Armed conflicts between the Huguenots under Bourbon nobles, and the Catholics, under the Guise family, ended for a time with the signing. April 13, 1598, at Nantes, of a royal edict, giving religious toleration to the Huguenots. But hostilities were renewed in 1624, and in 1685 the edict of Nantes was revoked by Louis XIV. The Code Napoleon restored Protestant rights, religious and civil.

1579 Sir Francis Drake went ashore in Marin County, California, and nailed a metal plate to a post, claiming that region for Queen Elizabeth of England. He named it Nova Albion. The plate was found in June, 1936 Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, Feb. 8. Her secretary, Rizzio, had been assassinated in March, 1566.

1587

1513 Ponce de Leon landed in Florida, April 8, at
St. Augustine, but that place was not ac-
tually settled until 1565, when Gen. Aviles
de Menendez was sent from Spain with
soldiers to drive away a colony of Hugue-
nots, under Jean Ribault, that had lo-
cated somewhat to the north.
Battle of Flodden Field, in Northumber-
land County, England, Sept. 9, where the
troops of Henry VIII, defeated the Scots
under James IV and slew him.
Balboa discovered Pacific Ocean, Sept. 25.
1517 The Reformation began in Germany, perse-
cution of Protestants commenced in France;
Luther was excommunicated by the diet
at Worms on April 17, 1521; he published
his German Bible in 1534; born, Nov. 10.
1483; married, June 13, 1525, Catharine von
Bora, a former nun; he died Feb. 18, 1546. 1588
1519-21 Conquest of Mexico by Cortez, who de-
feated Montezuma, the emperor, and es-
tablished a kingdom; Mexico became inde-
pendent in 1821; a republic was declared in
1823; an empire under Archduke Maximilan
of Austria was established, in 1864; he was
shot, in 1867, and the republic was re-
stored.
1524 Giovanni de Verrazzano, a Florentine, ex-
plored the coast of North America from
Newfoundland to Florida, discovered New 1602
York Bay, and named the country New
France.
1526 William Tyndale's translation of the New
Testament which he had begun in 1525 in
Cologne, was published in England. In 1536
he was convicted of heresy, in Antwerp,
Belgium, and was burned at the stake.
Oct. 6.

1530 Reading of the Augsburg Confession, em-
bodying Martin Luther's views, to the Diet
there, June 25.

1531-35 Marquis Francisco Pizarro conquered Peru. 1534 Act of Supremacy makes the King head of the Church of England; ends Papal power there.

Virginia Dare, first child of English parents in Colony of Virginia, born at Roanoke Island, Aug. 18, seven days after Sir Walter Raleigh's colonists arrived there from overseas. His first party settled there in 1584 and disappeared.

Spanish Armada defeated, July 21-29,, by a British fleet, which sent flaming ships into the midst of the enemy's craft. The Armada consisted of 132 armed craft with 33,000 men (21,855 soldiers), including 150 monks and the Vicar of the Inquisition, sent by Phillip II. Only 50 ships and 10,000 men returned to Spain.

1598 First attempt at colonization, in Acadia; Marquis de la Roche lands 60 convicts on Sable Island.

1603

1605

15.

Capt. Bartholomew Gosnold, of Falmouth, England (the first known white man to set foot on New England, landed at South Dartmouth, near New Bedford, Mass. May Crowns of England and Scotland joined, Mch. 24, under James VI of Scotland, who became James I, and on Oct. 24, 1604, was proclaimed "King of Great Britain, France. and Ireland"; legislative union on May 1,

1707.

Gunpowder plot by Guy Faux (or Fawkes) to blow up British Parliament discovered. Nov. 4. 1607 Jamestown, Va., settled. May 13 (the first permanent English settlement in America), under Capt. John Smith, with 105 Cavaliers in 3 ships. At Jamestown, on July 30, 1619, they convened the first representative assembly in America. They had landed at Cape Henry on April 26, 1607.

Society of Jesus (Jesuits) formed, Aug. 15. It
is said that it was only, at that time, a tem-
porary union that bound together S. Igna-
tius Loyola and his companions, and that
the formal and final union dates from Sept.
27, 1540, when it was confirmed by a bull 1609
from Pope Paul III.

1535 First English Bible translated and issued by
Miles Coverdale. In 1539 he printed Crom-
well's Bible; he edited Cranmer's Bible in
1540.

Henry Hudson, in "Half Moon," went up Hudson River, Sept. 11; discovered Manhattan Island, Sept. 4. Samuel Champlain of France, advancing from the north, discovered Lake Champlain, July 4. 1610 Thomas West (Baron Delawarr) Governor of Virginia, sailed into Delaware Bay, but did not colonize in what is now Delaware. 1614 Captain Hunt, who accompanied Capt. John Smith on a tour of the New England coast, kidnapped 27 Indians and carried them to Malaga for sale as slaves.

1536-39 Monasteries closed in England. 1540 Francisco Coronado of Salamanca, Spain, who had gone to Mexico in 1535, organized there an expedition and, 1540-42, explored what is now Arizona and New Mexico in search of the "Seven Cities of Cibola" (Zuni Pueblos?) and rumored stores of gold 1618 Thirty Years War began in Germany (Boand silver.

1541 Executions of so-called witches began in
England; the victims numbered 130 up to
1682. Some were burned at the stake,
others lost their heads by the axe.
1545 Council of Trent in the Austrian Tyrol, con-
vened Dec. 13, and lasted until Dec. 3, 1563.
It was called to condemn the doctrines of
Luther and Calvin.

hemia) between Catholics and Protestants: ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphallia, Alsace was given to France, Swiss independence was recognized, and the German states got their religious and political rights, as did Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus.

Sir Walter Raleigh beheaded at London, Oct. 29. He had been convicted in 1603 with Lords Cobham and Gray of treason in having plotted to put Arabella Stuart_on the English throne in place of James I.

1546 Persecutions and executions of Protestants began in Scotland after the assassination of the Regent, Cardinal Beaton, at St. Andrews. In 1560 Parliament abolished the 1619 Slavery introduced into American Colonies jurisdiction of the Pope in Scotland, Aug.

24.

1555 Bishops Ridley of London and Latimer of Worcester were burned at the stake at Oxford, Oct. 16: Archbishop Cranmer of Canterbury, Mch. 21, 1556; 277 burned at the stake in Queen Mary's reign.

1620

in Aug., when 20 African negroes were landed from a Dutch ship, at Jamestown, Va. Many American Indians captured in warfare in New England were sold into slavery in the West Indies. Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock, Dec. 21. They were English, but some had dwelt

1620

Governor Berkeley, he raised a force of farmers who, like him, had been oppressed by taxes. He burned Jamestown, but died suddenly: 23 of his followers were executed. Indian Chief, King Philip (Metasomet), a son of Massasoit, hunted down and killed, Aug. 12, at Mt. Hope, R. I., by whites under Capt. Benj. Church. That ended one of the flercest wars in New England colonial times. It was Massasoit who had welcomed the Pilgrims of the Mayflower. 1688 William of Orange Stadholder of Holland, invaded England with 13.000 men on 600 transports escorted by 50 warships. He was the husband of the eldest daughter of James II. 1691 The first post office in the United States was organized under a royal patent granted to Thomas Neale.

since 1608 in Holland. The latter party 1676 went from Holland to Southampton on the "Speedwell," where that vessel was abandoned, and most of them came to America on the "Mayflower." The compact signed in Provincetown Harbor before landing bore 41 names; the entire company aboard numbered 101 persons. The captain was Christopher Jones, of Harwich, England. The Pilgrims on the "Mayflower" were bound for New York when they left Holland, but landed at Plymouth by mistake. Priscilla Molines, a French woman, daughter of Guillaume Molines, was one of those on the Mayflower. By her marriage to John Alden, she became an ancestor of John Adams, second President, and John Quincy Adams. 1624 The ship "New Netherland" arrived at what is now N. Y. City in May, let 8 men off to take possession, and went up the Hudson to Albany. In 1626 (May 4) Peter Minuit arrived at N. Y. City from Holland, and on May 6 he bought the island from the Indians. As early as 1613, Dutch traders had built a few huts at the Battery, to trade with the Indians; Fort Nassau was built in 1615. 1635 April 23-The first naval battle by white men in America was fought on the Little Pocomoke River, Eastern Shore of Maryland. between Claiborne's pinnace Long Tail and Governor Calvert's two pinnaces, the St. Margaret and the St. Helen. In 1643 Calvert was driven from the province by William Ingle.

1638 In March. an expedition on two ships, Kalmar Myckel (Key of Kalmar) and Vogel Grip (Bird Griffin) which had left Gothenburg, Sweden, in Nov. 1637, under command of Peter Minuit, arrived in Minquas Kill (Christiana River) within the limits of the present city of Wilmington, Delaware. There they built a fort, and left there a colony of 13 soldiers.

1692 "Witchcraft delusion" at Danvers (Salem Village), Mass.; 16 women and 5 men were tried, convicted and hanged between June and Sept.

Port Royal, Jamaica, W. I., destroyed by earthquake, in June.

1693 Earthquake and eruption of Mt. Etna, in Sicily, 60,000 killed, Sept.

1694

Thence to 1744 Massachusetts passed statutes offering bounties for the scalps of Indian rebels and enemies. The price for male scalps ran as high as £100, females were less, children 10 years of age £10. In Virginia and Carolina and in the Colony of New Plymouth, Indians could be sold for debt and for stealing.

1701 Capt. William Kidd, American ship-master, and 9 of his men, hanged in London, May 23, for piracy. He had been commissioned by the British Government to capture pirates, but he also seized, or his crew did, an English ship, as well as the Great, Mogul's vessel, the Quedah Merchant, and the East Indian trader craft, Rouparelle, which carried French passes. This angered the British East India Company.

1703
1704

1707
1712

That
was the origin of the State of Delaware.
Many Finns were among the early settlers.
1644 Manchus established their dynasty in China,
at Pekin. It lasted without interruption
until Feb. 12, 1912, when Pu Yi, son of
Prince Ch'un and nephew of the late Em-
peror Kuang Hsu, abdicated. He became
Emperor of Manchukuo on Mch. 1, 1934.
1649 King Charles I beheaded at London, Jan. 30,
after a trial for treason, and condemna-
tion by the House of Commons sitting as
a High Court, at which but 67 of the 135
members were present. He had ruled 11
years without a Parliament.
The Maryland General Assembly passed "an
Act Concerning Religion," which has been
called the pioneer toleration law in Amer-
ica. It authorized public places of worship
for the Anglican Church. A law punished
all mutinous and seditious speeches and
acts by imprisonment during pleasure, fine,
banishment, boring of the tongue, slitting
the nose, cutting off one ear or both ears,
whipping, branding with a red-hot iron
on the hand or forehead, according as the
court should think suitable. Other pun-
ishments were losing the right hand and
being nailed by the ears to the pillory.
1656 Anne Hibbins hanged as a witch at Salem,
Mass.
1660 John Bunyan, a tinker, Imprisoned at Bed-
ford, England, in November, for unlawful
preaching. He was released in 1672, after
having written part of Pilgrim's Progress.
1664 New Amsterdam surrendered by Dutch to
English, Sept 8; became New York.
1666 Fire in London, England, covered 436 acres,
destroyed 13,200 houses and 89 churches. 1727
including St. Paul's, Sept. 2-6. The fire
followed the Great Plague of 1665 which
killed 68,000 in London and thousands else-
where in England. Fires kept going to kill
the vapors of the pestilence were blamed
for the Great Conflagration.

1668 Yellow fever made its first recorded appear-
ance in North America; severe epidemics in
N. Y. City and Philadelphia.
1669 In Sweden, in one of the final outbursts of
the witchcraft mania, 38 children, seven to
sixteen years of age, in Mohra and Elfdal,
who had accused themselves. were
executed.

1676 Bacon's Rebellion (March-October) in Vir-
ginia, was led by Nathaniel Bacon, a wealthy
planter from England, a member of Sir
William Berkeley's Council, The Susque-
hanna Indians raided his crops. Defying

Earthquake in Japan. 200,000 killed, Feb. 2.
Gibraltar taken by the English from Spain,
July 24; formally ceded to Britain by the
Treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713.

In Maryland an Act was passed "to prevent
the growth of popery." In 1716 the Roman
Catholics were disfranchised.

Union of England and Scotland. Slave insurrection in N. Y. City, April 6; quickly suppressed; 6 negroes killed themselves; 21 others were executed. 1713 Peace of Utrecht, April 11, among Great Britain, France and the allies. It ended the wars of Queen Anne, secured the Protestant succession in England, and separated France from Spain. In England the Company of Merchants got exclusive trading rights in South America, for which it agreed to wipe out the war debt. The capital was increased to £10,000,000. Not much trading was done. Meantime thousands of investors had paid ten times the par value of shares. Then the crash This was the South Sea Bubble. Triple Alliance of England, Holland and France against Spain, Jan. 1720 Mississippi Scheme bursts. John Law, a Scot who had fled from England after he killed a man in a duel, and who had formed in France a colonial trading company, got the government to give the company control of currency and finance. Shares were sold at 15 times par value. Then there was a run on the bank, and the whole scheme blew up, ruining the investors. Law fled to Italy.

1717

1735

1741

came.

(Some say 1722) Last legal trial in Scotland for witchcraft. The victim, an old woman of Dornoch, was tried, convicted and was stuffed into a pitch barrel in June and burned to death. Her daughter also was convicted, but escaped from prison. Freedom of the press in the United States established by the acquittal, by a jury, at N. Y. City, of John Peter Zenger, of a charge of libel for having criticized the administration of Gov. Cosby. The trial be. gan on Aug. 4. He died in 1746. His Weekly Journal was continued for 3 years by his wife and son.

1746 Battle of Culloden (Drumossie Moor) near 1775

Inverness, where the English defeated the Scots, April 16, under Prince Charles. Stuart Pretender, who died at Rome, 1788. 1747 Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, Scottish Jacobite, supporter of the Pretender, executed at London, for treason, April 9; last person beheaded by legal process in England. 1754-63 French and Indian War in America.

1780-Aug. 16, Camden, S. C.; Oct. 7, 1782
King's Mountain. S. C.

1781-Jan. 17, Cowpens, S. C.; Mch. 15.
Guilford Court House, N. C.; Sept. 8,
Eutaw Springs, S. C.; Sept. 28, Oct. 19,