scraping mountains, was discovered (1646) by St. Isaac Jogues, French Jesuit missionary later martyred by the Indians and recently canonized by the Catholic Church as the first American saint. Lake Placid is an internationally known summer and winter resort. Here is the great Mt. Van Hovenberg Olympic Bobsled run, designed and constructed by the State Olympic Winter Games Commission. Here also are toboggan slides; skating rinks (notably the Olympic arena, now the scene of famous hockey games); ski jumps; stables for skijoring horses, and kennels for sled dogs.

There are hundreds of places in New York ideally adapted for winter sports and each winter sees an increasing number of railroad trains thronged with ski enthusiasts bound from the cities for the snow-impacted hill lands.

Saranac Lake, home of the famous Trudeau sanitarium where the treatment of tuberculosis was first started on a large scale, is world-famed as a health resort as well as winter and summer sports center.

Manhattan Island is bounded on the west by the Hudson River, on the south by the Upper Bay, on the east by the East River, which connects the Upper Bay with Long Island Sound, and on the north by the small waterway known as the Harlem River, which connects the Hudson with the East River. The traveler coming by sea to New York enters the Lower Bay by a dredged channel, finds deep water in the Narrows between the lower Bay and the Upper Bay, and by an inspection of the map may note the deep water of the Upper Bay and in the Hudson River adjoining Manhattan Island.

The importance of New York as the seaport which handles the great bulk of the tonnage coming to the United States is because the Hudson is a drowned river. The coast line of the region at the mouth of the river has subsided, and the former course of the river has been traced seaward for approximately 100 miles by soundings across the Continental Shelf. The silting up of the Lower Bay with sediments brought south by the Hudson and the action of the tides have made necessary the dredging of the Ambrose Channel in the Lower Bay. This provides a depth of 40 ft. for vessels entering the port, and almost unlimited anchorage is available in the Upper Bay, as well as docking facilities of the first rank in Manhattan and Brooklyn and along the New Jersey shore opposite Manhattan Island.

The topographic features of the New York City region show small relief. Between the Hudson River, the East River and Long Island, there is a series of flat-topped ridges whose direction is in general parallel with that of the Hudson River and

North

the alignment of Manhattan Island itself. The altitudes toward the northern limits of this section are 300 ft. or more.

Along the west bank of the Hudson River are the Palisades, a ridge of resistant rock, the cliff faces of which viewed from points along the east bank of the Hudson are of superb beauty and constitute the most imposing scenic feature of the New York City region. They may be seen to good advantage along the whole course of Riverside Drive. The chief economic interests of the State are the national and international financial community of New York City, the foreign commerce in New York Harbor, now the heaviest in the world; the large manufacturing, and the rich agricultural resources. Because of the demands of the large urban population, agriculture is a huge industry in New York. The leading type of farming is dairying and the State ranks high in production of cheese. Fruits and vegetables are grown extensively. Principal crops in recent years have been corn, wheat, oats, barley, hay, apples. peaches, pears, cherries, grapes, cabbage (New York leads in cabbage production), onions, potatoes, beans, buckwheat, maple sugar, maple syrup.

The City of New York, with its universities, and other schools, its cathedrals, churches, museums, libraries, hotels, palaces, sky scrapers, subways and bridges, its parks and driveways, is one of the great wonders of the modern world. The largest ships in the world are a part of its commerce. More than 100,000 visitors enter and leave every day. Food and clothing are brought to the inhabitants from every part of the globe. It is one of the three great money cities of the earth. Many points of interest in New York City are treated elsewhere in the Almanac at greater length.

Coney Island, Brooklyn, is an internationally known seaside playground on the Atlantic Ocean with five miles of bathing beach, a boardwalk and multiple amusement devices. Brighton and Manhattan Beaches, adjoining Coney Island. attract thousands of bathers.

Long Island is one of the best known summer and all-year regions in the East. It has many famous bathing beaches including Riis Park, Rockaway, within the limits of and maintained by the City of New York; Long Beach and Jones Beach. Southampton is the scene of a noted society colony, and like other exclusive resorts on both the North and South Shore, has a private bathing beach.

Staten Island (Richmond) has a number of summer resort beaches. chief of which is Midland. Others include South, Graham, Woodland, New Dorp and Oakwood beaches, all on Lower New York Bay, an indentation of the Atlantic Ocean.

in tobacco production, growing 70 per cent of all the bright leaf cigarette crop produced in the United States, for which the farmers receive an average of $150,000,000 a year. Cotton and cotton seed rank next, the yield valued at approximately $39,000,000 yearly. Corn, which ranks third, has more acres planted to that than any other single crop; it amounts to about $35,000,000 yearly. Other crops in the order of their importance are hay, peanuts, commercial truck crops, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, peaches and apples. North Carolina ranks third in the nation in the value of its farm crops.

Great Smoky Mountains National Park comprises 687.5 square miles of mountain beauty in extreme northwestern portion of the State. about half in North Carolina and half in Tennessee. The park is 54 miles long and 19 miles wide. The Great Smokies meander through the park for 71 miles and for 36 consecutive miles are more than 5,000 feet in altitude. There are 16 peaks in the park more than 6,000 feet high. The area contains more than 200,000 acres of virgin hardwoods of which some 50.000 acres are of red spruce, the largest stand of this spruce on the continent. There are 56.5 miles of motor roads, 25 miles of secondary roads and 510 miles of horse and foot trails within the park, also 600 miles of trout streams.

North Carolina is primarily an agricultural State, although it has many important industries, particularly the manufacture of cigarettes, cotton goods and knit goods.

Agricultural produce is varied. The State leads

A great variety of minerals is found in North Carolina, principally clay products, mica, barytes, kyanite, talc, kaolin, olivine and coal. It is the country's chief source of mica, feldspar and residual Koalin clay. There are also several rare minerals such as monazite and zircon, used in the manufacture of incandescent light mantles. columbite, allamite and wolframite.

Asheville, with an elevation of 2,300 feet, is a popular resort city. A point of interest nearby is the Biltmore House, palatial mansion built at a cost of several million dollars by the late George W. Vanderbilt and now open to the public. Because of its magnitude, remarkable grounds and gardens, paintings, antiques, and other objects of art, Biltmore House is unique among country establishments in America.

Charlotte and Winston-Salem are important commercially. In Charlotte was signed the first American Declaration of Independence (May 20, 1775), antedating the national Declaration by more than a year.

In the St. James Episcopal Church, Wilmington, is a 450-year-old painting of Christ taken from a pirate ship in the old town of Brunswick across South River (1748).

The long windswept barrier beach of North

tenseness of its political life. It is regarded as a politically pivotal State, and has given the United States five Presidents, all native born, while two others, elected as residents of other States, were born in Ohio.

The pre-historic Mound Builders who once inhabited the country from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico have left more traces of their work in Ohio than in any other State. The best known is Serpent Mound, the form of a serpent 1,300 ft. in length on an embankment near Locust Grove, Adams County. It was built as an adjunct to religious or ceremonial worship and is the largest and most impressive pre-historic effigy on the American continent. It is now the property of Harvard University. The largest conical mound in Ohio is the Miamisburg. 68 ft. high and about 850 ft. in circumference. Though a shaft was sunk a short distance from the top, it has never been explored. In all of Ohio, there are 10,000 mounds and 2,000 earth enclosures, many of them of extensive dimensions.

Other points of scenic and historic interest are the George Rogers Clark Park containing the site of the Battle of Piqua and birthplace of the Indian chief Tecumseh; the house in which Ulysses S. Grant was born in Point Pleasant, and Thomas Edison's birthplace is Milan. Hocking County contains more places of scenic interest than any other in the State. Rock House, Ash Cave, Cedar Falls, Conkles' Hollow, Old Man's Cave and the Natural Bridge at Rockbridge are in this one county, all but the latter having been made State Parks.

During the Northwest Territory regime the Governor and judges also constituted the legislative body, and the capitol, in effect, was wherever they happened to be. Governor St. Clair and his aide went to Marietta (July, 1789) and instituted government under the Ordinance. From Marietta St. Clair went to Cincinnati and thence to other cen

as

ters in the territory, organizing "counties" units of government. He established his headquarters (1791) in Cincinnati, which came to be regarded as the capital. Here were organized the expeditions against the Indians-the disastrous ones in St. Clair and Harmar, and Wayne's successful campaign.

Congress designated Chillicothe as the capital and the legislature met there (Nov. 1800).

The village's one meeting place was Abrams' Big House, a two-story log cabin with a doubledecker annex. The main floor, where the legislature met, was the Athenaeum, used for singing schools, dances and Presbyterian Church services; the upper floor was a barroom. The chief duty of the sergeant-at-arms was to keep enough members downstairs to constitute a quorum. This second session was the last meeting of the Territorial legislature in Ohio.

The constitution had provided that Chillicothe be the capital until 1808, but left the site of the permanent seat of government for the legislature to decide. When the people of Muskingum County erected a building for the State offices (1809) the legislature accepted Zanesville as the temporary capital. But before moving there it appointed a commission to locate the permanent capital "not more than 40 miles from the common center of the State."

James Johnson, John Kerr, Alexander McLaughlin and Lyne Starling offered (Feb. 1812) to Jay out a town on the east bank of the Scioto river opposite Franklinton, convey to the State a tract of 10 acres for a statehouse and a similar tract for a penitentiary, erect thereon State buildings to the value of $50,000 and have them ready for use (by Dec. 1, 1817). This offer the legislature accepted and (Feb. 14) it voted that (after Dec. 1, 1817) the capital should be on "the high bank of the Scioto." The new capital city was named Columbus.

The western plains are treeless, but the Ozark Mountains in the eastern part are heavily wooded. Further west are the Wichita Mountains, and then the Chautauqua, while the extreme northwest is a lofty tableland (altitude about 4,700 ft.). The Arkansas River flows eastward through the middle of the State, and small rivers in the southern part drain into the Red River, which forms the southern boundary. The prevailing type of soil is a deep dark-red loam. The climate shows great variations of temperature, and the rainfall in the west is scanty, though generally sufficient in the east.

In northwest Oklahoma are the Great Salt Plains, an area of dazzling white salt six by eight miles in size and as level as a table top. This gigantic deposit is said to be the residuum of a great, prehistoric inland sea, from which the water drained to form the present salt plain.

Two Territories were combined to make the State, Oklahoma and Indian Territory, which was the home of the Five Civilized Tribes-Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws and Seminoles. The more than 30 tribes in Oklahoma compose 36% of the Indian population of the United States. The dances and festivals range from the religiopolitical Sacred Fire Ceremony of the Cherokees, said to have been established more than 2,000 years ago, to the modernized Armistice Day Celebration of the Osages. There are many war dances and peyote dances, Indian fairs and festivals, stomp and green corn dances, and scores of others, and almost every locality is host to one or more of them during the year.

Oklahoma is primarily agricultural. The State leads in the production of broom corn. Other imported crops are corn, wheat, oats, grain sorghums, potatoes, hay, fruits and cotton. The annual woolclip is great.

Petroleum was known to exist near Chelsea (1889) but there was little development until 1903. The famous Glen Pool near Sapulpa was brought into production (1906). The State reached first rank as a producer (1927) but yielded that place to Texas, and (1929) dropped to third place, below California. Other minerals commercialized are zinc, lead and natural gas.

Oil lifted on land owned by Indians, wards of the Nation, brought them riches. The Osage Indians received $22,000,000 (1926) at the peak of their oil riches; each "headright" drew $13,400.

Manufactures are few in Oklahoma. The leading industry is petroleum refining. Zinc smelters and refineries are important, and the flour mills and cotton seed oil, cake and meal factories have a large output.

Among the institutions of higher education are the University of Oklahoma, in Norman, and the Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater.

White

Except for a small strip of land north of Texas. that territory now known as Oklahoma was organized (1834) as an Indian Territory. people were barred as settlers. Although there was a large influx of Indians from other parts of the country, a considerable area in the central part of the territory remained unoccupied. This section was purchased by the United States Government and opened to the public (April 22, 1889). More than 50,000 persons entered in one day. The State has 27 Indian Reservations.

The No-Man's Land Strip just north of the Texas Panhandle and West of the 100th meridian, was a strip of public land west of the Cherokee Strip of Indian Territory. Efforts were made to include the strip in Kansas and in New Mexico without success. The people who lived there considered it a part of Indian Territory in which it was finally included when opened to the public (1889). It has been said it was a passageway for Indians going eastward or westward. The strip is now a part of Oklahoma and has been divided into three counties, Beaver, Texas and Cimarron.

stretches of semi-arid lands of the southeastern parts, with a touch here and there of almost desert.

The coast climate is salutary, never very cold. and seldom very hot. That part of the State east of the Cascade Range, drier and often colder, is a

vast plateau greater in area than that of the New England States combined.

It has very important navigation facilitiesthe Columbia River flowing into the Pacific with a width at the mouth of about 14 miles, the river carrying tonnage along the whole of the 400 miles of its seaward course from the Idaho line; and the Snake, running along the northern half of the eastern boundary, already conveying much traffic and being susceptible of greater development. The Bonneville Dam, a gigantic power and navigation project, is situated on the Columbia River at Bonneville, 42 miles east of Portland. It has created a deep lake 50 miles inland to The Dalles on which ocean-going vessels may navigate. Into Oregon pour the products of "The Inland Empire," a region comprising 250,000 square miles in Eastern Oregon, Eastern Washington and Northern Idaho, the Columbia being the waterway outlet, and the railways following the water grades from the Empire through the Columbia River Gorge to Portland, the "Rose City," which is actually on the Williamette River, ten miles from the Columbia, but economically on the Columbia. The part of Oregon west from the Cascade Mountain range, which has peak elevations up to 12,000 ft., is slashed north and south by the Coast Range, a very aged ridge now eroded to lower levels. The whole of the western one-third of the State has abundant rainfall, the average precipitation at Portland being about that of Chicago or New York.

Oregon has almost one-half of the more than one trillion ft. of timber standing in the three Coast States, Oregon, Washington, and California. Some of the trees are more than 300 ft. high. In the southwest are found forests of the redwoods. with at least 20 other varieties of timber in abundance, some of it excellent for furniture manufacture, which is a considerable industry. The cut of timber is the second in the United States, Washington only exceeding. The lumber cut averages more than 3 billion board feet annually and is shipped to all foreign markets.

The State produces walnuts, and, in the Willamette Valley, filberts. Long-fiber flax is grown in the Salem district, which is also the fruit, berry,

and canning region. The State leads in the production of hops. Other crops are winter wheat, oats, hay and potatoes. The annual wool-clip is abundant. The salmon fisheries, centering in Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia, are among the world's greatest.

Although undeveloped, all the basic minerals are found in Oregon. Gold, silver and copper are mined, with also stores of lead, oil, quicksilver, chromic iron ore, platinum, and all the clays. The gold output exceeds $2,000,000 a year.

There are several colleges, the State University in Eugene, the Agricultural College in Corvallis, Reed Institute in Portland, and others.

The Columbia Highway, unexcelled for scenic beauty, running up the river from Portland: Mt. Hood (11,253 ft.) the highest point in the State. Other lofty mountains, and Crater Lake, 6,000 ft. up in the Cascade Mountains, are points of tourist interest.

Crater Lake, in Crater Lake National Park, reposes in what was once a gigantic volcano. Of an unusual sapphire blue, it is six miles in diameter and 2.000 feet deep.

Carrying sea letters granted by George Washington, Captain Robert Gray in his ship, the Columbia (May 11, 1792), sailed into the river which is named after his vessel. He gave the United States by right of discovery sound argument for claiming the vast region drained by the river-the Oregon country.

Through President Thomas Jefferson's efforts Lewis and Clark were commissioned to explore the country (1803). They reached the mouth of the Columbia (Nov. 11, 1805); built Fort Clatsop, a site near where Astoria stands today. The ruins of a cairn where they reduced salt from sea water may be visited in Seaside.

John Jacob Astor's Pacific Fur company (April, 1811) established a fort, the beginning of Astoria. which fell into British hands during the War of

1812.

A provisional government was formed at Champoeg (May 2. 1843).

The territorial government of the Oregon country was proclaimed (March 3, 1849).

Pennsylvania, of the Middle Atlantic group, is bounded on the north by Lake Erie and New York, on the east by New York and New Jersey, on the south by Delaware, Maryland and West Virginia. and on the west by West Virginia and Ohio. It is one of the Thirteen Original States.

It is of varied topography, like most Atlantic States, having leveler lands to the east, and rising to higher altitudes to the westward. The Appalachian range traverses the central part from northeast to southwest, a higher mountain region being in the extreme west, and another lower plain running down to the shores of Lake Erie. It has rivers important in navigation-the Susquehanna, the Delaware and the Allegheny and the Monongahela, which unite at Pittsburgh to form the Ohio. The Commonwealth's mountains and lakes are well adapted to winter sports.

The Commonwealth has built its industries largely on the basic elements. It produces nearly half the steel of the country, shipping it to all parts of the world. Pittsburgh is the center of the greatest metal production ever attained in one locality. Its supplies of iron ore come mostly from Minnesota, and its operations have made more millionaires than any other single industrial center in the country. The perfected tonnage from Pittsburgh is the heaviest, excepting at New York and Chicago, Electrical goods and equipment are made in Pittsburgh in large quantity.

The bituminous coal annual output averages approximately 350,000,000 tons; anthracite averages 45.000,000 to 50,000,000 tons; and the Commonwealth produces high-grade petroleum, iron ore, pig iron, steel for rails and structural purposes, lime, slate, and other metals and minerals.

Scranton is the greatest hard coal center of the country, and makes much steel.

Pennsylvania leads in the production of buckwheat. Other important crops are winter wheat. rye, oats, corn, potatoes, tobacco, apples, peaches, pears and grapes.

In educational facilities the Commonwealth rank high. The principal higher educational institutions are the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia (founded in 1740); Washington and Jefferson in Washington (founded 1780); Pennsylvania State College; University of Pittsburgh;

Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh; Lafayette College. Easton: Lehigh University, Bethlehem; Temple University. Philadelphia; lege, Carlisle: Franklin and Marshall College. Bucknell University. Lewisburg: Dickinson ColLancaster: Allegheny College, Meadville: Duquesne College, Pittsburgh; Grove City College, Grove City: Haverford College, Haverford; Swarthmore College, Swarthmore. There are also three colleges for women, in Bryn Mawr, Pittsburgh and Chambersburg.

Pennsylvania was named in honor of Admiral William Penn, the founder of the province. William Penn, a Quaker, received a charter (1681) from Charles II of Great Britain for land in America that was given the name of "Pensilvania" (Penn's Woods) by the King. The name "Pensilvania" was used for many years by William Penn and his sons, Thomas and Richard, to designate the province. The grant was made in settlement of a debt of 16,000 pounds which King Charles and the British Government owed Admiral Penn. charter was granted (March 4, 1681).

The

The founder of the province convened a General Assembly in Chester (Dec. 4. 1682) when three laws were enacted during a session of four days. The province and territories (Pennsylvania and Delaware) were divided into three counties each, Philadelphia. Chester and Bucks for the former, and New Castle, Kent and Sussex for the latter. The first General Assembly was convened by proclamation issued by the proprietor who set forth that the assemblage was to include all residents of the province.

Penn granted three charters; one (1682), the second one (1683) and the third (1701. Pennsylvania was governed under the latter charter until the Constitution of 1776 was framed during the period of the Revolution.

Penn's invitation to Continental Europeans to come to his province brought to Pennsylvania a mixture of English, Scotch-Irish, Scotch. Irish, Welsh, Dutch, French, Swedish and German.

The terms "Commonwealth" as applied to the province and "General Assembly" as the official name for the law-making body of Pennsylvania, were originated by Penn and remain in the Constitution in force.

The United States was born on Pennsylvania