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Forster proclaimed the reunion of Danzig to the Reich (Sept. 1, 1939) and the Free City was accepted into the Reich at once by Chancellor Hitler.

Chief exports are grain, sawn timber, coal, ores

and sulphates; principal imports are salt herrings, coffee, cocoa and tea.

The monetary unit is the gulden, worth about 25 cents in American money. The budget (1939) balanced at 126,880,000 gulden.

Denmark

(KONGERIGET DANMARK)

Capital, Copenhagen-Area, 16,575 square miles-Population (est. 1939), 3,805,000 Denmark occupies the peninsula of Jutland, thrusting out to the north from Germany, which is its only land neighbor, between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, with the adjacent islands. The Skagerrak separates it from Norway, and Kattegat from Sweden. The country consists of low, undulating plains.

The Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic, about 300 miles northwest of the Shetlands, belong to Denmark. Great Britain established a protectorate over the islands (April 11, 1940). The islands have a combined area of 540 square miles and a population (1935) of 25,744.

The origin of Copenhagen dates back to ancient times, when the fishing and trading place named Havn (port) grew up on a cluster of islets in the Sound, but Bishop Absalon (1128-1201) is regarded as the actual founder of the city. On one of the islets he built a stronghold against the pirating Wends and the remnants of this still exist underground in front of Christiansborg.

Regular boat service is maintained from the Havnegade quay in Copenhagen to Klampenborg, Elsinore and various other points along the coast. Klampenborg is a popular bathing resort. Elsinore (Helsingor) contains the reputed grave of Hamlet, the Danish prince immortalized by Shakespeare. A great attraction here is the castle of Kronborg with historic casemates and old bastions, the bronze guns of which once commanded the Sound when duties were exacted from every passing vessel.

One-third of the population lives in normal times exclusively by agriculture and approximately onehalf by manufactures and trade. The cultivated area (1938) showed the following crop acreage: wheat, 325,000; rye, 358,500; barley, 982,000; oats. 926,100; mixed grain, 746,000; potatoes. 195,700.

There were in Denmark (July, 1939) 564,000 horses, 3,258,000 head of cattle, 3,127,000 swine and 27,500,000 hens. There were (March, 1940) 3,066,000 pigs.

Danish dairy products are world famous and the country in normal times exports more butter than any in the world and produces more bacon than any other with the exception of the United States. The fisheries also are important.

The first cooperative consumers society was

established (1866) and today the system has 1,964 affiliated societies and includes 370,000 households, about 45% of the whole population, and employs about 21,000 workers. Danish farmers operate more than 1,400 co-operative dairies, 60 co-operative bacon factories and numerous slaughterhouses.

The chief exports in normal times are dairy products, eggs, provisions and fodder, animals and animal products. The principal imports in normal times are chemicals, wood, cork, paper, textiles, fuels, lubricants and metals.

Denmark is a constitutional monarchy, the succession being hereditary. The King and the Rigsdag (Diet) jointly hold legislative power. The Rigsdag is of two bodies-the Folketing (House of Commons), with 149 members, and the Landsting (Senate), with 76 members. Men and women of 25 years of age have the franchise. The Premier (1939) is Thorvald Stauning.

The King of Denmark is Christian X (born Sept. 26, 1870). He succeeded his father, Frederik VIII (May 14, 1912) and married (April 26, 1898) Princess Alexandrine of Mecklenburg. His heir, Crown Prince Frederik (born March 11, 1899), was married (May 24, 1935) to Princess Ingrid (born March 28, 1910), daughter of Crown Prince Gustav Adolf of Sweden. The King of Denmark is also King of Iceland.

Germany invaded Denmark (April 9, 1940) although a ten-year pact pledging Germany not to make war or use force against Denmark had been signed (May 3, 1939).

In the elections to the Folketing (April 3, 1939) the Government Coalition of Social Democrats and Radicals maintained a majority with 78 seats against 71 for the opposition. The Nazi party won three seats and the Communists three.

The Evangelical Lutheran is the established religion. Education is compulsory. The University of Copenhagen was founded (1479).

The army is in the form of a national militia, every able-bodied man being liable for service from 20 to 36.

The monetary unit is the krone with an average value of $.20. The budget (1941-1942) estimates revenue at 522,300,000 kroner and expenditures at 589,000,000.

GREENLAND

Greenland, a huge island between the North Atlantic and the Polar Sea, is separated from the North American continent by Davis Strait and Baffin Bay. It extends northward from 60°-86° N. lat. Its total area is 736,518 square miles, 705,234 of which are ice-capped. Most of the island is a lofty plateau 9,000 to 10,000 ft. in altitude. The average thickness of the ice cap is 1,000 ft. The population (1941) is 18,000, composed of 16,222 natives and 408 Danes. The capital is Godthaab: its population is 1,313. Greenland is the only Danish colony.

The United States formally relinquished its claim to land in Northern Greenland discovered by Admiral Peary when it bought the Virgin Islands from Denmark (1916).

Greeland and the United States signed an agreement (April 9, 1941) whereby the United States get the right to establish military and naval bases on the island and in turn pledges protection to Greenland against aggression. The agreement was signed by the Danish Minister to the United States. the Government of German-occupied Denmark not participating

Greenland trade has been a state monopoly of Denmark since 1776. Denmark declared the entire island Danish territory (May 10, 1921) and (June 16) ordered all coasts and islands closed to nonDanish vessels.

Trade is chiefly with Denmark. The deposits of cryolite are the largest in the world. Fish, fur and graphite are the other exports. Trade in Greenland is a state monopoly.

Dominican Republic

(REPUBLICA DOMINICANA)

Capital, Ciudad Trujillo-Area, 19,332 square miles-Population (est. 1939), 1,616,561 The Dominican Republic occupies the eastern The population is a race of mixed European, portion, about two-thirds, of the Island of Santo

Domingo, or Hispanola, the name given it by Columbus, the second largest of the Greater Antilles, situated between Cuba on the west and Puerto Rico on the east. The boundary between it and the Republic of Haiti, which occupies the western part of the island, is 193 miles long. It has a coastline of 1,017 miles.

The land is very fertile, about 15,500 square miles being cultivable; agriculture and stock raising are the principal industries. Sugar, cacao, coffee, rice, corn and tobacco are the chief products.

The country contains deposits of silver, platinum, copper, iron, salt, coal and petroleum, but the mining industry is undeveloped.

African and Indian blood. Spanish is the language of the country. The State has no religion and there is toleration for all faiths. The population is almost wholly Roman Catholic. Education is compulsory.

The Army consists of a force of 300 officers and 3.000 of other ranks. There is a coastal patrol of four boats.

A new constitution was proclaimed (June 20, 1929) and modified (June 9, 1934). The President is elected by direct vote every four years. The National Congress consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies Dr. M. J. Troncoso de la Concha was inaugurated President (March 8, 1940).

The Dominican Republic has its own monetary

standard, same base and value as the United States' coin system (there is no Dominican gold or paper money). The paper money in circulation is from the United States. Government revenues (1940) were estimated at $12,139,954 and expenditures at $12,134,956.

The Republic has opened its lands to colonization by refugees from Europe. The first refugees arrived

(May 8, 1940) and established the Sosua settlement, a tract of 25,000 acres, 15 miles east of the town of Puerto Plata, on the north coast, a gift of Rafael L. Trujillo, former president of the Republic. He made available (1941) another tract of 50,000 acres, adjacent to the Sosua colony. It is estimated that the lands will accommodate a colony of 2,500 refugees.

Ecuador

(REPUBLICA DEL ECUADOR)

Pri

Capital, Quito-Area, 275,936 square miles-Population (estimated 1941), 3,200,000 Ecuador, on the Pacific Coast of South America, stormy even for a Latin-American republic. extends from about 100 miles north of the Equator Roman Catholic is the dominant religion. to 400 miles south of it. It is bounded by Colombia mary education is compulsory. Military service on the north and Peru on the south. The boundary is compulsory. The Army (1938) numbered apin the east is in dispute, much territory being proximately 8,000 officers and men. claimed by Peru. Two cordillera of the Andes cross the country, with a dozen peaks above 16,000 ft. in height, of which Chimborazo (21,424 ft.), Cotopaxi (19,550 ft.), Cayambee (19,534 it.) and Antisana (19,260 ft.) are the highest.

Ecuador is a republic. According to the Constitution (adopted March 26, 1929) the President is elected directly by the people for a four-year term and the Congress consists of two Houses: the Upper with 32 Senators and the Chamber with 56 Deputies. A Constituent Assembly was convened (Aug. 10, 1937) to draft a new Constitution, following the suspension of the old (Sept. 27, 1935). Women voted for the first time in 1939.

Dr. Arroyo del Rio was elected President (1940) for four years. Congress granted (Aug. 6, 1941) unlimited powers in economic affairs to the president.

The country is rich in undeveloped minerals. Rich silver ore is found at Pillzhum in Cañar, Petroleum output is increasing. Large deposits of copper, iron, lead, coal and sulphur are known to exist. Agricultural products include cereals, potatoes, fruits, cocoa, coffee. Wild rubbles, mangrove bark, (for tanning) alligator skins, and kapok are important commercially The so-called Panama or "Jipi-jappa" hats, made of Toquilla straw, are manufactured in Ecuador.

Ecuador's independence dates from the Battle of Pichincha (May 29, 1822) and its history has been

The monetary unit is the sucre with an average value of $.066.

The budget (1941) was estimated to balance at 117,200,000 sucres.

The chief imports are cotton goods, metals, jewelry, foodstuffs. liquors, drugs, chemicals; woolen, silk, rayon and linen goods. The United States ranks first as the source of Ecuarodean imports.

Guayaquil, the "Pearl of the Pacific," chief port of Ecuador, on the northern bank of the Guayas river, and 50 miles upstream from the Great Gulf of Guayaquil on the Pacific Ocean, was founded in 1537. The Guayaouil-Quito railway is one of the greatest engineering feats in the world. At Nariz del Diablo (Devil's Nose) a forbidding mountain intercepts the railway, and the train ascends 2,900 ft. in five minutes, along a daring zig-zag road cut out of solid rock along the mountain side and supported by huge retaining walls. Quito is reached in the middle of the afternoon on the second day. The streets of Quito are narrow and steep, many houses being literally perched on the mountainside. Quito was once the capital of an empire ruled by the Incas after they had vanquished the Caras. The Spanish settlement dates from 1534. In colonial times it was the most important art center in America and today the churches contain works of sculptors and painters whose names have survived the centuries.

Egypt

(MISR)

Capital, Cairo—Area, estimated, 383,000 square miles-Population (1937), 15,920,703 Egypt occupies the northeast corner of Africa with the Mediterranean Sea on the north and the Red Sea on the east Beyond that, between the Gulf of Suez and the Canal and the Gulf of Akabah, lies the Sinai peninsula, 150 miles long, flat and sandy. On the south is the Soudan, the parallel of the 22° north latitude forming the boundary. To the west is Libya.

The Valley of the Nile and the delta are the real Egypt of 60 centuries. Here are 13,600 square miles of cultivated area; 1,900 square miles are taken up by canals, roads, date and other agricultural plantations, and 2,850 by the surface of the Nile, its marshes and lakes. The Nile has a length of 4,000 miles from the Victoria Nyanza to the Mediterranean. In the 960 miles of its course through Egypt it receives no tributary stream. The river at Aswan is at its lowest at the end of May, rises slowly until the middle of July and rapidly throughout August, reaching its maximum at the beginning of September; then it falls slowly through October and November. At Cairo the maximum rise (average about 13 feet) is reached the beginnig of October. The river carries a heavy traffic.

Great dams regulate the flow of the Nile and one of them, the Gabel Awlia dam (completed April 25, 1937), is the longest in the world, measuring 16,400 ft.

The Nile irrigates 5,400,000 acres and this number may be increased to 7,600,000 by engineering improvements. King Mena (about 4000 B. C.) is credited with being the founder of the first scientific system of using the water of the Nile for irrigation purposes, and that plan, the basin system, is still used for all the land south of Deirut in Upper Egypt.

By this system the land is divided into rectangular areas from 5,000 to 50,000 acres in size and surrounded by banks; water is admitted to these basins during the flood period (August) to an average depth of three ft. and is left on the land for about 40 days; it is then run off and the seed sown broadcast on the uncovered land. A system of perennial irrigation by digging deep canals was

introduced (1820) by Mohammed Ali Pasha; this was restored and greatly improved during the British occupation. Two million acres of cultivable land were added, and under the basin system, cereals, beans and lentils are grown; under the new perennial system cotton, wheat, cereals, beans, sugar cane, vegetables and fruit are the chief products. Two and three yields a year are grown.

A variety of minerals is found in Egypt, principally phosphate rock and petroleum. Others are ochres, sulphate of magnesia, talc, building stones, gypsum, natron, salt, gold, alum, copper, beryl, granite and sulphur.

Many automobile highways-some of them through the desert-have been constructed.

Four-fifths of the people are of ancient Egyptian stock, whose forbears by their labor built the pyramids for alien kings, and whose physical characteristics were pictured in the mural paintings of the temples and tombs and on the papyrus scrolls 6,000 years ago.

Moslems form 91.40% of the population, Christians 8.19%, and Jews. 0.40%. Illiteracy, which was high until some years ago, is being eradicated by the Government. Education is now compulsory for all children between the ages of 7 and 12. There is a famous seat of Moslem learning in the University of Al-Azhar at Cairo, founded with the Metropolis about the year 968 A.D.; and another, quite modern and up-to-date, the Fouad I University, at Giza, opposite Cairo, founded in 1908.

Originally a part of the Turkish Empire, with more or less semi-independent status, England declared a Protectorate over her temporarily as a war measure in December (1914), and so remained until the Declaration of Feb. 28, 1922, when England formally recognized Egypt as a sovereign, independent State. The then Sultan assumed the new title of King as Fouad I (March 15, 1922). An Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of Alliance was signed at London (Aug. 26, 1936) whereby England was allowed, as the ally of Egypt, the presence of a force of 10,000 men and 400 airplanes at the Suez

Canal for twenty years, till such time as Egypt could build up a force sufficiently powerful to take over such duties; this Treaty also accorded the British, as the Ally of Egypt, the use of Alexandria and Port Said as naval bases; and, as such, further permitted her to move troops over Egyptian territory in the event of war or threat of war.

Military service is compulsory between the ages of 19 and 27 with recruits called to colors on a large scale in the expansion of the Army. The strength of the Army (1937-1938) was 22,560. The Air Force consists of 67 planes but is being expanded to 500 by 1944. The Defense Council decided (1938) to build a fleet of 36 units, a cruiser. minelayers, minesweepers and submarines.

The King of Egypt is Faruk I (born Feb. 11, 1920), son of the late King Fuad I and Queen Nazli. He succeeded his father (April 28, 1936), married (Jan. 20, 1938) Farida Zulfikar, daughter of Yussuf Pasha Zulfikar and granddaughter of Mohamed Pasha Said, Prime Minister 1910-14 and in 1919. A daughter (born Nov. 17, 1938) was christened Ferial. A second daughter was born

(April 7, 1940) and named Fawzia.

The Constitution of 1923 provides for a Parliament composed of a Senate (Maglis al Shuyukh) and a Chamber of Deputies (Maglis al Nwwab). Two-fifths of the Senators are appointed by the King, the remainder elected directly by the people, as are the Deputies.

The Premier is Hussein Sirry Pasha.

The monetary unit is the English pound. The budget (1940-1941) estimated revenue at 47.718,000 pounds and expenditures at 45,818.000.

The principal imports are textiles, mineral, chemical and pharmaceutical products; wood and cork articles; paper; metals; machinery and motor vehicles. Exports are chiefly agricultural products and cotton.

Cairo, the capital of Egypt, is a city of exquisite conglomerate charm, whose streets resound to the ring of three civilizations. Hundreds of mosques attract the eye of the tourist. Excursions are conducted to the Pyramids and Sphinx of Giza and the ruins of ancient Memphis, and the monuments at Luxor and Karnak.

Ethiopia

(ABYSSINIA: AFRICA ORIENTALE ITALIANA) Capital, Addis Ababa-Area, 350,000 square miles-Population (1939, estimated) 10,000,000 natives, not counting Amhara tribes

Ethiopia (or Abyssinia) is a mountainous volcanic country in northeast Africa, bounded by Eritrea (Italian), French Somaliland and British Somaliland on the northeast. Italian Somaliland on the southeast, Kenya Colony (British) on the south, and the Anglo-Egyptian Soudan on the west. The agricultural and mineral resources of the country are comparatively undeveloped, and its wealth of water power is unused.

Cattle, sheep and goats are bred. Horses are small but sturdy and are widely used as polo ponies; mules and donkeys are raised. Cotton, sugar-cane, date palm and coffee are extensively cultivated. The coffee is of three types-Harari (long berry Mocha), Jimma and Sidamo. There is also a wild berry known as Abyssinian coffee. Other important products are hides and skins, wax, barley, millet (dhurra), wheat, gesho (which serves as a substitute for hops) and tobacco. Rubber trees are numerous. Iron is manufactured into spears, knives and hatchets. Gold, coal, copper, sulphur and potash salts are also found.

The Franco-Ethiopian railroad (487 miles long. connecting Jibuti and Addis Ababa) carries the bulk of produce from the interior to the coast, although many caravan routes are still widely traveled. The principal exports are hides and skins (cattle, goat, sheep, leopard and monkey), coffee. grain, wax, civet and native butter. Chief imports are salt (from French Somaliland and Sudan), gray sheetings and other cotton piece-goods (from England, India, Japan, and Italy), cotton yarns (from England, India, Japan, Italy, France); building materials, petrol and kerosene (from England, the United States and Soviet Russia); sugar, glass, soap.

Mahommedanism is still the prevailing religion although many Ethiopians adhere to the Coptic branch of Christianity. Moslems predominate in Harrar; Christians in Addis Ababa. The Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria has been the supreme head of the church since the diffusion of Christianity in the fourth century, appointing the Abuna, or head

bishop of Ethiopia, but the Italian Viceroy (Dec. 1, 1937) decreed the Coptic Church in Abyssinia autocephalous and appointed the Albuna, three metropolitans and three bishops for the whole of Italian East Africa.

German scientists describe the Abyssinians as “a mixed Hamito-Semitic people," and other ethnologists assert that the "true Abyssinian type contains no Negro blood whatever and none of the Negro qualities, either physical or mental." The royal family claims descent from Menelik, the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.

Ethiopia sought membership in the League of Nations (1923). After an investigation into the existence of slavery in the kingdom and the promulgation of a decree (June, 1923) making slave trading punishable by death, the country was admitted to the League (Sept. 28, 1923).

Italy conquered Ethiopia in a war which began over a border clash (Dec., 1934), and was waged until Addis Ababa was captured (May 5, 1936). The Emperor, Haile Selassie, who had succeeded the late Empress Waizeru Zauditu (April 2, 1930), and his son, the Crown Prince, Asfaon Wosan, fled the capital (May 2, 1936).

Premier Mussolini (May 9, 1936) in Rome, proclaimed the country as annexed to Italy, and added the title of Emperor of Ethiopia to King Emanuel III

A Royal Decree (June 1, 1936) established the colony of Italian East Africa, comprising Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, with headquarters in Addis Ababa. Haile Selassie was returned to his throne (May, 1941) after British forces had occupied Ethiopia.

After annexation Italy launched a vast colonization program for the country, including the building of modern motor roads and the improvement of the agricultural resources.

Courts are under the jurisdiction of Italian offcials but native chiefs still administer justice when the sole litigants are Abyssinians. The Italian lira is the official currency. The budget (1939-1940) balanced at 2,183,000,000 lire.

Finland

(SUOMEN TASAVALTA)

feated and driven back into Russia in two battles (April, 1918) and the German troops went home in December of that year. The Finnish Diet re

solved (July 17, 1917) to establish a republic, and a peace treaty acknowledging the independence of Finland was signed with Russia at Dorpat (Oct. 14, 1920).

Capital, Helsinki-Area, 131,588 square miles-Population (1938), 3,863,753 Finland formed part of the Kingdom of Sweden With German intervention, the "Reds" were defrom 1154 to 1809, when it became an autonomous Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire. It declared its independence (Dec. 6, 1917), established a Provisional Government, and became a republic (1919). Finland is bounded on the north by Norway, on the east by Russia, on the south by the Gulf of Finland, and on the west by the Gulf of Bothnia, Sweden and Norway. Finland ceded to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics at the close of the Finnish-Soviet war 16,173 square miles of territory. All this territory was regained (1941) in the war between Germany and Russia, Finland fighting with the Axis powers.

Finland, after the downfall of the Czar, had representative government restored to her by a Provisional Government. Following the Bolshevist coup d'etat the Diet and Senate (Dec. 6, 1917) roclaimed the independence of the republic. Civil between the "Reds" and "Whites" followed.

The lake and canal waterways are navigable for 3,000 miles. Notable are the mighty Imatra rapids of the river Vuokski, having in a channel about 25 yards wide, an aggregate fall of about 72 ft. in a distance of 1,400 yards and a volume (the greatest in Europe) of between 480 and 700 cubic metres per second, discharging ultimately into Lake Ladoga.

Although extending far north into extremely cold latitudes, with rugged climate and topography, Finland is an agricultural country. Lumber is the most important industry. The principal crops are rye, barley, oats, potatoes and hay. Other chief

industries in the order of their importance arepaper and pulp; iron and mechanical works; textiles; leather, rubber and fur; and chemicals.

Imports are mostly metals and metal goods; machinery: minerals and earths; textiles; colonial produce and spices; oils, fats, and waxes; means of transport; cereals; spinning materials. Exports. in order of their value, are pulp and paper; timber and manufactures of wood; food obtained from animals; metals and metal goods; leather, hides. furs; minerals, ores, and products from same; yarn and ropes; matches, ammunition, and other explosives; machinery; resins and tars; textiles. The cooperative system has worked throughout Finland for nearly 40 years with marked success. There are (1939) more than 7,000 cooperatives with a total membership exceeding 900,000 and they handle about 25% of the retail trade and 40% of the wholesale.

Universal military service prevails from 17 years to 60. Males reaching 21 are summoned to service for a period of approximately a year for training. The conscript then remains in the first reserve until 40 years old. The second reserve is comprised of those between the ages of 40 and 60, conscripts who are considered unfit for active service and youths

between 17 and 21, not yet enrolled as conscripts. There is also an Air Force and a Coast Defense. The Civic Guards, approximately 100,000, also are a part of the national defense.

The Evangelical Lutheran Church is the state religion, although there is absolutely free worship. There are three universities-one in Helsingfors and two in Turku.

The President is chosen for six years by an Electoral College of 300 chosen by direct vote; he appoints the Cabinet. The President is Risto Ryti, who was elected (1940) after the resignation of Kyosti Kallio.

In the general election (July, 1939) the Government coalition bloc, composed of Laborites, Agrarians and Liberals, increased its majority in the Diet from 143 to 149. Of the opposition parties the Conservatives gained three seats while the Swedish party, representing the minority population, lost three. Fascists and Nazis operating in the Patriotic National League lost seven of their 14 seats. The voting system is devised for proportional representation.

The monetary unit is the mark with an average value of $.02. The budget (1940) produced revenue of 5,109,594 marks, and expenditures were 5,105,595.

France

Capital, Paris-(War) Vichy-Area, 212,659 France, once a republic, no longer exists as such in the sense of the constitutional laws (1875). It is now designated the French State and is in a transitional period, between armistice and peace. and its definite regime has not been adopted. The Constitutional Law (July 10, 1940) provides specifically that a Constitution must be drawn and ratified by the nation. However, it has been declared officially in France that nothing definite can be done along these lines until normal conditions are restored and peace signed.

A single political party to assist in the reform of the nation and the establishment of a new regime was created (Aug. 31, 1941) by Chief of State Marshal Petain. He announced that membership in the French Legion from the Veterans of Two Wars had been extended to include all those who volunteer their services for the National Revolution. The name of the party is French Legion of War Veterans and Volunteers of the National Revolution.

Belgium and Luxemburg are its neighbors on the north. On the east Germany lies beyond the Rhine, the boundary: the Jura Mountains and Lake Geneva separate it from Switzerland, and the Graian Alps and the Maritime Alps from Italy. On the south is the Mediterranean Sea and Spain. with the Pyrennes for the boundary line. On the west lie the Bay of Biscay and the North Atlantic Ocean, and on the north again the English Channel and the Straits of Dover separate it from England. From north to south its length is about 600 miles, and from the western extremity near Brest to Strasbourg on the Rhine it is about 560 miles wide. The coastline on the north is 700 miles long; along the Atlantic and the Bay of Biscay, 865; on the Mediterranean 384 miles.

It has the highest mountain in Europe west of .the Caucasus, Mont Blanc (15,781 ft.). On the French side of the Pyrenees are several peaks exceeding 10,000 ft. in height.

In the south-central part of France is the socalled Central Plateau, which is bordered on its southeastern side by rugged mountain ranges, beginning with the Cevennes, which ascend from the Rhone Valley and reach a height of 5,584 ft. in Mont Lozere, and on its northwestern side by the Monts d'Auvergne which attain an altitude of 6,000 ft. Further it is bordered by the hills of Burgundy and Cote d'Or. Still further north are the Vosges, which run parallel with the Rhine; their crest formed the boundary line between France and Germany before the World War. Thence the wooded highlands of the Argonne and the Ardennes bear off to the frontier. The western and northwestern part of France consists of fertile plains save for the hills of Normandy and the picturesque rocky coast of Brittany.

square miles-Population (1936), 39,302,511 the Adour, in the extreme southwest corner, is Bayonne with its neighboring seaside resort of Biarritz. On the Mediterranean coast, which on the west is low, with lagoons and sand dunes, there is no great port till the mouths of the Rhone are passed and Marseilles, the second city of the country, is reached. Beyond is the great naval base. Toulon, and from there by Nice and Monaco to the Italian frontier and beyond runs the beautiful Riviera-the Cote d'Azur.

France, country of arts, letters and science, is also a land of festivals and gaiety. There are historical pageants elaborately presented in beautiful settings, such as Versailles, St. Germain, and in some of the many gardens in Paris.

France possesses 1,300 thermal springs and 120 health resorts. Spas are scattered through the mountain ranges, notably in Savoy, the Massif Central and the Vosges, Alps, Pyrenees and the Jura, as well as in the lower slopes of Normandy, Touraine, Provence and many other localities. Along the 1,900 miles of French coast bordering on two seas and an ocean, there are more than 900 bathing beaches.

Much of the history of France may be read in her art. The prehistoric remains at Les Eyzies in Dordogne, the caves of Monestan in Ariege. the dolmens and menhirs of Brittany, the arenas of Arles and Nimes, all speak eloquently of ancient are. Traces of the Merovingian period are to be found in Aix-en-Provence, Frejus and Poitiers; masterpieces of the Romanesque and Gothic abound throughout France; the Renaissance and seventeenth century are especially well represented by the world-famous chateaux and their gardens. among which Villandry, Versailles, Vaux, Sceaux and Saint-Cloud are particularly famous. famous castles are Chantilly, St. Germain-en-Lage, Fontainebleau, and the Grand and Petit Trianon. The magnificent public buildings and charming private mansions built during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Paris. Abbeville, Nantes, Tours, Orleans and Bordeaux excite the admiration of tourist and native alike.

Other

Throughout France there are many famous museums including the world-renowned Louvre, the Carnavalet and others in Paris. The country is noted for beautiful churches and cathedrals, particularly in Paris, Amiens, Beauvais, Reims, Chartres, Rouen, Poitiers, Bourges, Strasbourg, Albi and Arles. The chateaux of France, especially those of the Loire, are well known. Amboise, Blois, Luynes, Chenonceaux, Chambord, Sully, Langeais. Cheverny, Chinon, Loches, Azay-le-Rideau, have been available to tourist inspection for the past few years. Carcassonne is known for its old fortifled walls.

There are many popular winter resorts scattered in mountains of the Vosges, the Jura, the Alps and the Pyrenees.

France has four important rivers, the Seine, the Loire, the Garonne and the Rhone, the left bank of the Rhine from Basle, Switzerland, to

On the North Sea and the Channel are the seaports of Dunkirk, Calais and Boulogne, with the great port of Havre at the mouth of the Seine, and Cherbourg, an important naval base, between Cape Hague and Cape Barfleur. In the extreme north-Lauterbourg, and a dozen others, all of great western projection, sheltered by Cape St. Mathieu, is the roadstead of Brest, the great naval station. Further down the coast is Lorient, St. Nazaire, at the mouth of the Loire, with Nantes further up the river, Rochefort and La Rochelle. Up the estuary of the Garonne is the important port of Bordeaux, fourth city of the republic; and at the mouth of

value because of canalization, which binds them together. The waterways total 7,543 miles in length, of which canals cover 3,031.

French railways, totalling 26,417 miles, and formerly owned and operated under seven great railway systems, two of which were state-owned, were merged (Jan. 1, 1938) into one French National

Railway system, the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Francais.

Agriculturally, France is a country of small farms, the average unit being 24 acres. The French peasant is a frugal individual and grows most of what he eats. The land is suited to a variety of products the most important of which from a commercial standpoint are wheat, mixed corn, A great rye, barley, oats, potatoes and beets. diversity of fruits are grown, chiefly apples and pears, plums, peaches, apricots, nuts and cherries. The fishing industry is extensive. The government assists financially in the culture of silk.

The country is rich in minerals, and the basins of Pas de Calais and Lorraine are noted for their huge coal deposits. Subterranean products, besides coal, include lignite, iron ore, bauxite, pyrites, mineral oils, auriferous ore, asphalt, rock salt and potash salts. The iron ore deposits in Eastern France and the bauxite deposits in Central France are among the richest in the world.

Manufactures occupy a predominant position in the economic life of the nation, and chief among these are the making of chemicals, silk and cotton textiles, perfumes and iron products.

France imports more wine than she exports. France imported (1938) from the colonies 18,566,231 metric quintals and from foreign countries 198.093. Exports (1938) to the colonies were 311,636 metric quintals and to foreign countries 875,186. The principal imports in peace time in the order of their monetary value are coal and coke, wines, wool, vegetable oils and seeds, cotton, cereals. fruit (fresh and dried), machinery, coffee, copper, skins, hides, rice, timber. The order of exports, according to value, was machinery, iron and steel, wool, cotton cloth, silk cloth, chemicals, minerals. motor cars, wines, skins and hides, paper, sugar, spirits, precious and semi-precious stones, wool thread, fruits (dried and fresh), drugs, medicines. perfumes, soaps, cotton thread, timber,

Alsace-Lorraine, returned by Germany to France at the end of the World War, had a population (1921 census) of 1,709,749. The census (1921) returned the total population of enlarged France as 39,209,706, a loss of 395,474 over the previous census (1911). France, always an attractive country to foreigners, counted as residents (1911) 1,132,696, and (1921) 1,417,357 in the pre-war territory and 1,550,459, comprising Alsace-Lorraine, an increase of foreigners of 284.661. According to these figures the decrease of French citizens between 1911 and 1921 was, for pre-war territory. 2,389,884, or, counting the return of Alsace-Lorraine, 813,237. The number of foreigners in France (1936 census) was 2,453,507, a decrease of approximately 400,000 over 1932. The number of households (1936 census) was 13,145,184, occupying 9,109,687 houses.

France is in the vanguard in the matter of social welfare legislation. Both employers and employees contribute to the old-age pension fund. There is also compulsory social insurance against illness, maternity, disablement and death. The legislation has been continued by the French State.

With the belief that the French educational system was partly to blame for poor moral conditions in France, the French State has embarked upon a reorganization of French education, the main features of which are as follows:

A.

The general outline of the system, based upon a division into primary, secondary and university education (primary, secondary and superior) is not altered;

B. The philosophy of education is modified in that it is no longer considered beneficial to give too much learning indiscriminately to all French youth. It is contended that too much "theoretical" and "encyclopedic" knowledge is not, of itself, the best preparation for the life struggle:

C. In consequence thereof it is deemed advisable to modify the curriculum of French schools, developing manual training and sports, and reserving secondary education for those who seek classical culture and speculative learning;

D. To emphasize the need of moral, civic and patriotic teaching, special classes will be devoted to moral education and the teaching of history will be modified; religious schools will be officially allowed to reopen or to carry on and religious classes will be held in Government schools:

E. Special attention will be given to the training of primary teachers who, in turn, are responsible for the bringing up of most French children: F. To readapt the French educational system to present material conditions in France, various practical measures have been taken.

The French State repealed (Sept., 1940) the famous laws (1904) which nominally denied the This right to teach to all religious organizations. law was for a long time regarded as one of the most important pieces of legislation passed by the

Third Republic in its struggle against clericalism. It was not too rigidly enforced, however, especially after the World War of 1914-1918, but schools conducted by religious groups were nevertheless illegal. From now on, religious orders will be allowed to resume their teaching under the official control and authority of the Ministry of Education. Primary instruction is free and compulsory. The public schools form the University of France with an enrollment (1937-1938) of 5,436,554 pupils in 81,500 schools. There are 17 universities in the country.

The University of Paris was founded around 1150-1170 and the University of Montpellier existed as a School of Medicine at the beginning of the A faculty of jurisprudence was twelfth century. created in the latter part of the century. The University of Toulouse also was founded in the

twelfth century.

The country is predominantly Roman Catholic, only about a million persons adhering to the Protestant faith. The state recognizes no religion and tolerates all.

France, as a Republic, was governed under constitutional law adopted (1875) and modified (18751884-1885-1889). Legislative power rested in a Senate and Chamber of Deputies, with the Deputies elected by manhood suffrage every four years. The Senators were elected for nine years, one third retiring every three years; the election was indirect and made by an electoral body in each district made up of delegates chosen in the municipal council of each commune, and of Deputies, councillor-generals and district councillors in each department.

The two Houses united as a National Assembly, elected by absolute majority a President of the Republic to serve seven years, meeting immediately whenever a vacancy occurred. The President selected a Cabinet of Ministers, generally from the two Chambers, but was permitted to go outside the membership. In practice the President summoned a leader who could obtain a majority in the Chambers in support of his policies as President of the Council (Premier) and he made up his list of Ministers and submitted it for approval to the two Houses. The number of portfolios varied. Each Minister was responsible to the Chambers for his acts and the Ministry as a whole was responsible for the general policy of the Govern

ment.

The unit of local Government was the commune. Each commune elected by general suffrage a municipal council which in turn elected a Mayor, who is both a representative of the commune, the agent of the central Government and the head of the police. Each Department had representatives of all Ministries and was placed under a prefect nominated by the Government and having wide functions. The system continues under the French State.

The tenure of office of the Premier was subject to the will of the Chamber of Deputies. If the Chamber refused him a vote of confidence, he tendered his resignation and another Premier was named by the President.

The last elected President of France was Albert Lebrun (1932-1939). He was born (Aug. 29, 1871) and elected (May 10, 1932) to succeed Paul Doumer, who was assassinated (May 5, 1932). Lebrun was reelected (April 5, 1939) by the National Assembly.

The war with Germany saw rapid changes of Cabinets in 1940. Premier Edouard Daladier and his Cabinet resigned (March 20) and was succeeded by Paul Reynaud as Premier the following day. The Reynaud Cabinet served until its resignation (June 16) when Marshal Henri Philippe Petain was named Premier and immediately declared for peace with Germany.

The Third Republic of France came to an end (1940) after the German army had entered Paris, following the occupation of Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg and northern France. The invasion of the low countries began (May 10) and within a month the German forces had seized these lands and had overrun Northern France. German troops entered Paris (June 14) and the Government moved to Bordeaux. The Cabinet, by a vote of 13 to 11. agreed to ask Germany for an armistice. The Cabinet, the last under the Constitution of 1875, resigned and President Lebrun asked Marshal Petain to form a new Government, which entered into negotiations with Germany and Italy for an armistice. The armistice with Germany was signed (June 22) and the one with Italy two days later. German forces at the time occupied threefifths of France.

The Government moved to Vichy (July 2) and Parliament voted (July 9) full powers to Marshal Petain to establish a new constitution. The vote

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