port of Antwerp, which has become the greatest port of Continental Europe. The western part is low, level and fertile; the eastern, the tableland of the Ardennes, has a poor soil. The cities of Bruges, Ghent, Brussels and Antwerp are noted for art and architecture. Belgium formed part of the Low Countries from the readjustment of Europe in 1815 after Napoleon's downfall, until when it proclaimed its independence (Oct. 14, 1830.) The National Congress (1831) elected Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg King of the Belgians. He died (1865) and was succeeded by his son Leopold II, who died (1909.) By the Treaty of London, (April 19, 1839) the famous "scrap of paper," separation from the Nethelands and the neutrality and inviolability of Belgium were guaranteed by Austria, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Prussia and Russia. The Germans invaded the Kingdom (Aug. 2, 1914) and held nearly all of Belgium throughout the war, evacuating it immediately after the Armistice. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Eupen and Malmedy and Moresnet were ceded by Germany, adding 382 square miles and 64,250 inhabitants to the kingdom. These cantons were joined to the province of Liege (March 5, 1925.) Belgium was invaded by Germany (May 10,1940). King Leopold announced (May 27) that the Belgian Army had surrendered. In Paris, Premier Pierlot, at a meeting attended by the Presidents of both Chambers of Parliament, declared that the King's decision was illegal since it had to have the approbation of at least one member of the Cabinet. The Premier said this approbation was lacking because there was unanimous decision in the Cabinet not to associate itself with the action of King Leopold. Belgium was occupied by Germany which later announced the reincorporation into the Reich of Eupen, Malmedy and Moresnet, an area of 348 square miles with a population of 64,000. The Eupen-Malmedy-Moresnet districts were assigned to Belgium (March 6, 1925) by the League of Nations. A Belgian Government-in-Exile was established in Poitiers, France, with Premier Pierlot as the head and was recognized by Great Britain. The Government later moved to Vichy, France, but abandoned that place (Sept. 16) with the announcement that all further attempts to govern Belgium from the French provisional capital had been given up. The Cabinet later established the Government in London. The Belgian colonies retain their independence. Belgium is the most densely populated country in Europe with a population of 710 to the square mile. The population is divided into two well defined groups, the Flemish and the Walloons. The Roman Catholic is the religion of the great majority, but religious toleration prevails. Part of the income of the ministers of the Catholic, Jewish, Church of England and Protestant Evangelique religions is paid from the national treasury. Belgium has four universities in Ghent, Liege, Brussels and Louvain. The Army, under the Military Law of 1937, is recruited by annual calls and voluntary enlistments. Belgium has no Navy and the Air Force has been cooperating with the R. A. F. since the invasion by Germany. Louvain Library, destroyed during the World War (1914) when the German Army overran Belgium and later reconstructed with American funds, was destroyed a second time (May, 1940) in the new German invasion, It is estimated 700,000 BELGIAN The Congo Free State had its origin in the vision of King Leopold II of Belgium, who, roused by Stanley's discoveries, realized the great economic possibilities in the development of the vast territory reached by the Congo. The International Association of the Congo, which he founded and largely financed, sent Stanley back (1879). founded the first station, Vivi (Feb., 1880) and in all 24 before he returned (1884). The territory was formally ceded to Belgium by treaty (1907). volumes were lost in the last destruction. Louvain University was established (1426) and the library grew to rank with the best in the world. The principal crops are wheat, barley, oats, rye, potatoes, sugar beets, fodder beets and tobacco. The country produces a large quantity of coal but other minerals are of minor importance, The chief imports are wool, cotton, flax, hides, building wood, iron and steel, machinery, coal, chemical products, bitumen, zinc ore, wheat and wine. The principal exports are manufactures of wool, cotton, flax, leather and glassware, iron, steel and zinc products and sugar. The coal, iron and quarry industries are very valuable, as are the glass, textile and sugar, and the lace of Brussels, Malines and Bruges is famous. The King of the Belgians, Leopold III, (born Nov. 3, 1901) succeeded his father, Albert, killed by a fall from a precipice of rocks at the Marche les Dames (Feb. 17, 1934) and was crowned (Feb. 23, 1934.) He married (Nov. 10, 1926) Princess Astrid (born Nov. 17, 1905), daughter of Prince Carl, brother of the King of Sweden. Children of King Leopold are Princess Josephine Charlotte (born Oct. 11, 1927); Prince Baudouin (the Heir Apparent) (born Sept. 7, 1930) and Albert, Prince of Liege (born June 6, 1934). Queen Astrid was killed (Aug. 29, 1935) near Lucerne, Switzerland, when the automobile which her husband was driving plunged from the road. The Queen Dowager is Elizabeth, Duchess of Bavaria, who married the late King Albert, (Oct. 2, 1900) their other children are Prince Charles Theodore, Count of Flanders, (born Oct. 10, 1903) and Princess Marie Jose (born Aug. 4, 1906) married (Jan. 8, 1930) to Crown Prince Humbert, of Italy. Parliament consists of a Senate of 167 members, elected for terms of four years, 101 by direct vote, 44 by Provincial Councils and 22 by the Senate itself; a House of Representatives of 202 members, also elected for terms of four years. Universal male suffrage is in force. The following women may vote in Parliamentary elections: widows, not remarried, of soldiers killed in the World War: widows of Belgian citizens killed by the enemy in the War, or failing them, their mothers if the latter are widows; widowed mothers of bachelor soldiers killed in the War; women sent to prison or detained for political reasons during the enemy occupation of Belgium during the war. The party strength of the Parliament (elected April 2, 1939) follows: Party Catholics Socialists Liberals Flemish Nationalists Chamber Senate 73 62 .64 61 33 25 The Prime Minister is Hubert Pierlot (Catholic). The problem of smoothing the linguistic difculties of Belgium was settled (1932) when the government divided the country into three sections for administrative purposes: In the first, Walloonia, only French is used officially; in Flanders, Flemish; the Brussels district remains bilingual. The law does not apply to Eupen and Malmedy, German-speaking annexed districts. The unit of currency is the franc but the use of the belga (nominal value $.1685) is compulsory in foreign exchange transactions. One belga is equal to five paper francs, which is the medium of exchange in domestic business. The budget (1940) estimated revenue at 11,343,032 francs; expenditures 11,632,979,000. CONGO Belgian Congo has a short coast line on the South Atlantic at the mouth of the Congo, where is situated the village of Banana on a fine natural harbor. Equatorial French Africa lies to the north and west and Angola (Portuguese) to the south, beyond which to the east is Northern Rhodesia; to the east Tanganyika, now British, but formerly He German East Africa, and Uganda (British); to the north it also touches the Soudan. Vast, sunless and well-nigh impenetrable tropical forests fill the upper reaches of the river, covering about 25,000 square miles. The principal products of the Congo are palm-oil, cotton, palm-nuts, coffee, cocoa, rubber, copal gum, sugar and ivory. It has an area of 902,082 square miles, and an estimated population of 10,356,191. The average mean temperature is 80.6 Fahrenheit but only 70 degrees in the high country constituting the rim of the Congo Basin and the average rainfall is 43.27 inches. The native population (1939) is 10,304,084 and the white population, 25,200. The native religion is gross fetichism, but there are 2,902 Catholic and 830 Protestant missionaries in the country. About one quarter of the native population has been christianized. The Capital is Leopoldville. Mineral products consist of copper, diamonds, gold, tin, cobalt, silver and radium. The Belgian Congo ranks high among copper producing countries. The diamond fields (in the southwestern district) produce over four million carats a year; rank next after the South African diamond fields. The uranium ore from the Katanga District is of high grade, and the refinery at Oolen, Belgium, produces about 90 per cent of the world supply of radium. The chief industry is copper mining in Katanga where the copper bearing belt is 250 miles long by 25 to 50 miles wide. Tin, (discovered 1910), has been exploited since 1918. In the Katanga district is a large deposit of pitch-blende ore, from which the factory of Oolen, Belgium, produces about five grams of finished radium a month. Other important minerals are diamonds, gold, silver, cobalt, uranium and iron. Matadi is the most important port on the Congo, which is navigable for large vessels for 95 miles to Matadi. A railroad 249 miles long transships freight around the series of falls and rapids to Leopoldville on Stanley Pool. From here the river and its branches are navigable for about 3,750 miles. Railroads have been built around the falls on the upper river, and to connect important points. Belgian Congo's normal trade is chiefly with Belgium, although commerce with Germany, Japan and the United States is large. The Congo imports more goods from Japan than from any other country with the exception of Belgium. The monetary unit is the franc. Government revenue (1940) was estimated at 747,208,000 francs: expenditures at 779,821,500. Ruanda and Urandi, districts formerly in German East Africa, have been ceded to Belgium as mandatory of the League of Nations. The total area is 20,535 square miles. The population is estimated (1940) at 3,775,335, of whom 1,404 are Europeans, chiefly Belgians. Both districts are united administratively with Belgian Congo, under a vicegovernor at Astrida. The Ruanda Plateau is one of Africa's best cattle countries. Several peaks of the Birunga range reach an altitude of 14,000 ft. Bhutan Agriculture is the chief industry. The principal products are rice, Indian corn, millet, lac, wax, various kinds of cloth, musk, elephants, ponies and chowries. Capital, Punakha-Area, 18,000 square miles-Population (est.) 300,000 The Kingdom of Bhutan is a semi-independent native state in the Himalayas between Thibet on the north and British India on the south, with Sikkam on the west. It is 190 miles long from east to west and 90 miles wide at its widest point. Punakha is a fortress of great natural strength. The inhabitants of Bhutan are Mongolians and adhere to a form of Buddhism. There is a monastery-Tashi-Cho-dzong--containing 300 priests. The ruler of the kingdom is Maharajah Jig-me Wang-chuk (born 1906). He ascended the throne (Aug. 21, 1926). Since 1910 he has received a subsidy of 1,000,000 rupees from the British government. Bolivia (REPUBLICA BOLIVIANA) Capital, La Paz-Area, 537,792 square miles-Population (estimated 1938), 3,426,296 Bolivia is bounded by Peru and Chile on the west, Brazil on the north and east, Paraguay on the east and Argentina on the south. It lies across the Andes, and its chief topographical feature is the great central plateau at an altitude of 12,000 . ft., over 500 miles long, lying between two great cordilleras having three of the highest peaks in America. More than 50% of the population are Indians speaking their own dialects only, and 25% are of mixed blood. The percentage of illiteracy is high. Farming, grazing and mining are the chief Occupations. can read and write have the vote. Congress is composed of a Senate of 27 members elected for six years and a House of Deputies of 70, elected for four years. Agricultural products include potatoes, cacao, coffee, barley, coca, highland rice and rubber. It ranks as the second rubber exporting country of South America. The most important industry is mining. There are large deposits of tin, silver, copper, lead, zinc, antimony, bismuth, wolfram, gold and borate of lime. More than 15% of the world's output of tin is produced in Bolivia with an American corporation in control. The country ranks second to China in the mining of antimony. The petroleum industry is growing. Under Spanish rule (1540 to 1750) the mines produced gold to the value of $2,000,000,000. The annual production is now less than $500,000. La Paz, the capital, a city of great charm, lies in the heart of a gigantic canyon about three miles wide, ten miles long and 1,500 ft. deep, at an altitude of about 12,700 ft., and framed with high Andean peaks. Its huge cathedral where 12,000 people can worship (begun in 1835), was dedicated (March 4, 1933). In Lake Titicaca, about 125 miles long and 75 miles wide, are the islands of the Sun and the Moon famous in Inca legends. Primary education is free and compulsory. The University of Sucre was founded (1624). Roman Catholic is the recognized State religion but other forms of worship are permitted. Spanish is the language of the country. By the constitution (1880) the President is elected for four years by direct popular vote. He is not eligible for re-election until four years after his term has ended. All men over twenty-one who The century-old dispute with Paraguay over the Gran Chaco, the interior plain between the two the Paraguay, which flared up anew (1938) was countries north of the Pilcomayo River and west of bitterly fought out defying all settlement until 1935 when, under the good offices of a conference composed of representatives of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, and the United States an armistice was signed (June 12). A treaty of peace and friendship, terminating the Chaco dispute, was signed (July 21). Under its terms, settlement of the Chaco boundary question was referred to the Arbitral College composed of representatives of the six mediating American nations. The boundary line was fixed by arbitration (Oct. 10). Constitutional government was suppressed (1939) by President German Busch, who established a totalitarian state. His successor re-established Constitutional government. Gen. Enrique Penaranda was elected president (March 10, 1940). There is compulsory military service from 19 years to 50. There is also "pre-military" instruction for boys 12 to 19 and girls 15 to 20. The active army is limited to approximately 3,500 but with reserves the total fighting strength approaches 10,000 effectives. The Government expropriated (May 15, 1941) as a public necessity the Lloyd Aereo Boliviano, German air line operating in Bolivia. The line had an exclusive franchise for air service within Bolivia. The unit of currency is the boliviano; see Index, FOREIGN MONETARY UNITS. The budget (1941) is estimated to balance at 556,000,000 bolivanos. Since Bolivia has no seaport, imports and exports travel through Arica, Mollendo, Antofagasta, and La Quiaca. The principal imports are sugar, flour, wheat, coal, petroleum, iron and steel products, mining machinery. rice, wines and spirits, textiles and ready-made clothes. Peace time trade is divided among the United States, Germany and Great Britain in the order named. Brazil (ESTADOS UNIDOS DO BRASIL) Capital, Rio de Janeiro—Area, 3,275,510 miles-Population (Preliminary, 1940 Census), 41,356,605. Brazil is the largest state in South America, exceeding the size of continental United States (exclusive of Alaska) by 250,000 square miles. It has a coast line on the Atlantic Ocean of 4,889 miles, and extends approximately 2,676 miles from north to south and 2,694 miles east to west. It is bounded on the north by Venezuela and Dutch, British, and French Guianas; on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the south by Uruguay, Argentina and Paraguay; on the west by Bolivia, Peru and Colombia. The northern part is the great heavily wooded basin of the Amazon (1,465.637 square miles in Brazil) which rises in the Peruvian Andes and empties into the Atlantic at the Equator. The Amazon basin has a network of rivers which are navigable for 15,814 miles. The Amazon river by itself is navigable for 1,700 miles. the extent of its course in Brazilian territory. In all its rivers. Brazil possesses 27,318 miles of navigable water ways. Mountain ranges, interspersed with fertile valleys. traverse the eastern and southern states. The majestic falls of the Iguassú, one of the natural wonders of the world, are on the border of Paraná, a southern state. Brazil's horsepower is estimated at about 19.519,100. The country is Catholic, but freedom of worship is guaranteed. The Protestant population, the second most important (1935) was 167,457. The University of Rio de Janeiro (now University of Brazil was founded 1920. Other universities are in Porto Alegre (state of Rio Grande do Sul). São Paulo (state of São Paulo) and Belo Horizonte (state of Minas Gerais). Many superior schools, although not yet organized into universities, are found in the capitals of the most advanced states. Brazil has approximately 39,000 primary schools, 913 high schools, and 217 colleges. Primary education is free and compulsory. The language of the country is Portuguese. The mineral wealth of Brazil is vast but comparatively little developed. Manganese ore is now exported exclusively to the United States. The country possesses enormous deposits of monazite, Gold production is about 100,000 contos ($50,000000) annually. Other principal minerals are cement, diamonds, iron and coal. The iron ore deposits are in process of development. Brazil began the production of petroleum (1940) and also developed plans for the manufacture of steel, using domestic ore, petroleum, and coal. The cultivated area is about 32,250,266,384 acres for the principal crops, cultivation in Brazil being characterized by extensive planting rather than concentrated. Cotton is another important agricultural product. as is rubber. The country is the only producer of Carnauba wax, used for electric insulation, phonograph records and many other applications. Stock raising is important and the export of meat, hides and skins, and wool is increasing. The ten most important items exported by Brazil (1940) were: coffee, cotton, canned meat, hides and skins. cocoa, carnaúba wax, castor beans, precious and semi-precious stones, and timber. The ten most important items imported by Brazil (1940) were: machinery and hardware tools, wheat, iron and steel manufactures, automobiles, coal, chemical and pharmaceutical products, other vehicles and accessories, gasoline, steel and iron raw material, and combustibles. Brazil, discovered (1500) by Cabral, a Portuguese navigator, was developed as a colony of Portugal until the royal house of Braganza, fleeing from Lisbon before Napoleon's army (Nov. 1807) transferred the seat of Government to Rio de Janeiro (March, 1808). Brazil was proclaimed a kingdom (1815) and Dom Pedro, son of King John VI, who had been left as Regent on his father's return to Portugal, was crowned Constitutional Emperor (1822) and Brazil freed from Portugal. He abdicated (1831) in favor of his son Dom Pedro II, who was then five years old. Crowned (1841), he ruled with varying fortune (until Nov. 15, 1889) when he was driven from the throne into exile by a revolution which established a republic, the United States of Brazil. The Constitution (adopted Feb. 24, 1891) was modeled largely on that of the United States. There are 20 states, with limited autonomy, and one territory (Acre), bought from Bolivia (1902), and one Federal district. Church weddings re Divorces are forbidden. ceive the status of civil weddings. A tax on bachelors was decreed (April 19, 1941); also provisions for pre-marital physical examinations. Under the Constitution (1934) suffrage was extended to all men and women 18 years of age; the president was elected by direct suffrage for a term of four years and was barred from succeeding himself. The government was reorganized along semicorporative lines (Nov. 10, 1937) by President Getulio Vargas, who promulgated a Constitution calling for the establishment of a Council of National Economy to govern the economic life of the nation in conjunction with a remodeled Legislature composed of a Chamber of Deputies and a Federal Council. Ten members of the Federal Council, including the presiding officer, are chosen by the President of Brazil; the remainder are chosen by each of the 20 State legislatures. The Chamber of Deputies is composed of representatives of the people elected by indirect suffrage. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are chosen by the Aldermen of Municipal Chambers and a select group of 10 citizens in the various municipalities elected by the people. President Vargas ordered all State legislatures and Municipal Assemblies dissolved and fresh elections after the Constitution has been approved. Getulio Vargas, running for President (1929). was defeated, but, charging fraud. seized the government (Nov. 3. 1930) and was installed in office (1934). His term expires (Nov. 1943), provided that an amended Constitution is approved at a plebiscite. The monetary unit is the milréis with average value of $.05. an The budget (1941) estimates receipts at 4,124,546 contos; expenditures, 4,881,197 contos. (One conto equals 1,000 milréis). Brazil launched (Jan. 20, 1939) a five-year plan, entailing the expenditure of $150,000,000 for the improvement of public works and national defense. All males between the ages of 18 and 45 are subject to military duty under a selective service system. There is one year of service in the first line and eight in the reserve. The strength of the Army approximates 95,000. There is an air force with a personnel of 5,000. The Brazilian Navy is being modernized. The Army and Navy relinquished control of their air arms (1940) to the Air Ministry which controls civil and military aviation. Aviation has made tremendous strides in Brazil. The number of landing fields (1940) was 512; commercial plane flights, 7,900; passengers carried, 70,734; and mileage flown, 4,337,300. Bulgaria (BLGARIYA) Capital, Sofia-42,808 square miles-Population (1940), 6,549,664 Bulgaria is bounded on the north by Rumania, on the west by Yugo-Slavia, on the south by Greece, on the east by the Black Sea, and on the southeast by Turkey. It is about the size of Kentucky. The Principality of Bulgaria was created by the Treaty of Berlin (July 13, 1878) as autonomous and tributary principality under the suzerainty of the Sultan of Turkey. Bulgaria declared its independence (Oct. 5, 1908). Eastern Rumelia joined Bulgaria (Sept. 16, 1885) after revolution against the Sultan. Rumania ceded to Bulgaria (1940) all of southern Dobruja, 2,983 square miles, with a population of 378,364. The cession restored the boundary line of 1912. Bulgaria was an ally of the Central Powers in the World War. By the Peace Treaty of Neuilly (Paris) (Nov. 27, 1919), Bulgaria ceded Thrace to Greece and the Strumnitza Line" and a strip of territory on the northwest to Serbia. The treaty deprived Bulgaria of the Aegean Sea front. The Treaty of Lausanne (1923), giving Thrace to Turkey, fixes the boundary between Bulgaria and Turkey just west of Adrianople. A military coup d'etat, executed without bloodshed (May 19, 1934), turned out the Mushanov Cabinet and set up a Fascist government with Col. Kimon Gueorgulev as Premier. One of its first acts was to dissolve Parliament and political parties. The government changed hands five times (between May, 1934, and Nov., 1935). M. G. Kiosseivanoff became Premier (Nov. 23, 1935). The Parliament consists of a single chamber called the Sobranye or National Assembly, with 227 members elected by direct vote. Suffrage is enjoyed by all males over 21 and all married females over 21. A new cabinet was formed (Feb. 16, 1940) by Prof. Bogdan Philoff after the resignation of the Kiosseivanoff ministry as Balkan affairs again came to the fore. Bulgaria signed the Three Power (Axis) pact (March 1, 1941) as German forces moved into the country, occupying the airfields, the port of Varna on the Black Sea and Sofia, the capital. The treaty of Neuilly limited Bulgarian armed forces, all ranks, to 30,000, all volunteers. The war strength is approximately 500,000. Under the terms of the Neuilly Treaty Bulgaria surrendered all warships and submarines but is permitted to maintain a police and fishery patrol along the Danube. The King of Bulgaria is Boris III (born Jan. 30, 1894). He ascended the throne on the abdication of his father, Ferdinand (Oct. 3, 1918) and was married (Oct. 25, 1930) to Princess Giovanna (born Nov. 13, 1907), third daughter of the King and Queen of Italy. The children are Crown Prince Simeon, Prince of Tirnovo (born June 16, 1937). and Princess Marie Louise (born Jan. 13, 1933). Bulgaria's language is Slavonic. The state church is Orthodox Greek. Elementary education is obligatory from 7 to 14 years of age. There is a state university in Sofia and the American College is also situated there. Agriculture claims 78% of the population. The principal crops are wheat, rye, barley, oats, corn, potatoes and tobacco. Fruit is abundant. Industrial plants and cultures, fruits, vegetables and dairy products are exported in large quanti- Coal production is extensive. The monetary unit is the lev with an average value of $.0119. The budget (1941) estimates receipts at 10,160,600,000 leva and expenditures 10,095,922,000. Chile (REPUBLICA DE CHILE) Capital, Santiago-Area, 296,717 square miles-Population (1940), 5,000,782 The Republic of Chile lies on the west coast of South America, occupying the strip of land between the Andes and the South Pacific, from Peru to Diego Ramerez Island 55°59'S., having an extreme length of about 2,620 miles, with a coast line of 2,900 miles. The average breadth north of 40° is 100 miles. Chilean imports consist mainly of machinery, petroleum, sugar, newsprint, automobiles, coffee, tea and maté and textiles. Besides minerals and wool the exports are chiefly meats, fresh and frozen, and fresh fruits. The Andes have many lofty peaks, notably Aconagua (altitude 23,080 ft.), on the Chilean-Argentine boundary, the highest peak in the Americas. Corcoputi (22,162 ft.), El Muerto (21,227 ft.), the Baya (19,993 ft.), the Guallatiri (19,882 ft.) From 1907 to 1924 there were 12,694 earthquakes, an average of two daily. Easter Island 2,000 miles west of Chile, with its hundreds of stone figures, and the two Juan Fernandez Islands, less than 500 miles west, are national parks of the Chilean Government. The land in the north part is arid, but two provinces there, Tarapaca and Antofagasta, produced 95% of the world's nitrate supply until the process of obtaining nitrate from the air was made commercially profitable. There are 152 nitrate works in all (1938) but only about 25 are in actual operation producing about 100,000 metric tons a month About 70% of the world's supply of iodine is a by-product of Chilean nitrate oficinas. Chile is the world's second largest producer of copper. The provinces of Atacama and Coquimba have enormous iron deposits estimated at a billion tons. South of Valparaiso are large beds of coal, the reserve estimated at two billion tons. Other minerals are gold, silver, cobalt, zinc, manganese, borate, salt, sulphur, marble and onyx. Agriculture is an important industry. There are many large dairy farms. Wheat, barley, oats, beans, lentils, apples, melons, peaches, plums, nectarines, peas and potatoes are grown in abundance. Chile ranks seventh among wine producing countries. Manufacturing industries have developed greatly during the last ten years. With the creation (1939) of the Corporacion de Fomento de la Produccion (Corporation for the Promotion of Production) with a capital of $40,000,000, production of agriculture and manufactures has vastly increased. The population is almost entirely of European origin; there are about 30,000 Araucans (natives) in the Andes and an indeterminate number of nomadic Fuegans in Terra del Fuego. Straits of Magellan, is the southernmost city in Magallanes (former Punta Arenas), in the the world, and the center of a flourishing sheep industry. Valparaíso, chief seaport, was founded (1536) and Santiago, the capital, three hours inland, is five years younger. The latter has two universities and a National Library. Chile has about 6,000 miles of railroads, over half being state owned. An electric railroad connects Valparaíso with Santiago, 117 miles. Education is free and (since 1920) compulsory. There is a government university and a Catholic University in Santiago. The Roman Catholic religion is dominant though not maintained by the state (since 1925) and all religions are protected. . The language is Spanish. All able-bodied citizens from 19 years to 45 are liable for army service. Service in the active Army is for 12 years and with the second reserve to the end of the 45th year. The strength of the Army approximates 20,000 officers and men. The Navy consists of one battleship, one armored cruiser and two protected cruisers, eight destroyers, nine submarines and auxiliary vessels. personnel is 8,000 men in normal times. There is an Air Service of three brigades. The Chile threw off the Spanish yoke (1810-18). Under the constitution (1925), the President is elected for six years, the 45 senators for eight, and 143 deputies for four, all by direct popular vote. The President is Pedro Aguirre Cerda (elected Oct. 25, 1938). All male persons, 21 years of age or more, and able to read and write, have suffrage. The monetary unit is the peso with an average value of $.16. The budget (1941) is estimated to balance at 2,194,293,561 pesos. China (CHUNG-HUA MIN-KUO, i. e. REPUBLIC OF CHINA) Capital (temporary), Chungking-Area, 2,906,475 sq. miles-Population (est. 1936), 457,835,475 China, with a history reaching back to 2205 B. C., occupies a territory in the eastern part of Asia about one-third larger than continental United States. To the north lie Siberia and Manchukuo; to the west Russian Turkestan; to the southwest and south the well-nigh impassable barrier of the Himalayas forms the Thibetan-Indian frontier. French Indo-China borders it on the south; and the China Sea and Yellow Sea on the east separate it from the Philippines, Formosa (now Japanese), the Japanese Empire and Korea. The country is of rolling topography, rising to high elevation in the north in the Kinghan and Tarbagatal Mountains in Mongolia; the Himalayan and Kwenlun Mountains in the southwest, in Thibet, and the Hinghan Mountains of Manchuria. Its length from north to south is 1,860 miles, and its breadth from east to west is about 1,500 miles. situated, having about 36,469,321 people in 41,818 square miles, is the most densely populated political unit in the world. China Proper-China of the 24 Provinces-occupies the fertile southeastern part of the country. an area nearly twice the size of the United States east of the Mississippi. There the population on the generally accepted estimates has a density of 174 to the square mile. China Proper is one of the best watered countries of the world. From the mountains on the west four great rivers run in general course stretching for hundreds of miles along the ocean and inland for 300 miles. These rivers, the Yangtze, the Yellow, the Si kiang and the Hanho, drain four-fifths of the country. The Province of Kiangsu, in which Shanghai is Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism are the religions of China, although there are an estimated 48,000,000 Mohammedans with more than 42,000 mosques in the country, including Manchukuo. It is estimated that there are 2,624,166 Catholics and 618,600 Protestants. aboriginal hill tribes are still nature worshippers. Most of the China is essentially agricultural. Wheat, barley, corn, kaoliang, and millet and other cereals, rice, sugar and indigo in the south. Rice is the with peas and beans, are produced in the north; staple food of the Chinese. Fruit is grown in abundance. Fibre crops are important and include abutilon, hemp, jute, ramie and flax. Cotton is produced mostly in the Yangtze and Yellow River valleys. Tea is cultivated principally in the west and south. One of the most important industries of China is silk culture. years. Livestock is raised in large numbers. It has flourished 4,000 Cotton, wool and silk manufacture are important industries, especially in Shanghai and Canton, although native looms are found in most Chinese dwellings. Many commercial enterprises are Japanese-owned. In recent years flour and rice milling has become extensive; also tanning and cement and glass manufacture. China is one of the foremost coal countries in the world, with reserves estimated at 243,669,000,000 tons. Other minerals are iron ore, tin, anti mony, wolfram, molybdenum, bismuth and salt. Oil wells are worked in South Manchuria and Shensi. The oldest iron industry in the world is in Shansi. Shanghai, China's commercial and industrial capital, is situated on the left bank of the Whangpoo River, 12 miles above its mouth at Woosung. It is in the Yangtze delta. It occupies the most strategic position economically of any city in China. Through the port (before the last SinoJapanese war) passed 51% of the total import trade of the country and 35% of its export trade. deep sea vessels can navigate to its docks. The Shanghai Municipal area (population, Census of 1935, 3,489,998), is made up of the International Settlement administered by the Shanghai Municipal Council (population, 1,007,868); the French Concession, administered by a Council under the French Consul General (population, 496,536), and the Municipality of Greater Shanghai, a purely Chinese administrated municipality (population, 1,986,358). The International Settlement stretches along the Whangpoo River between Chapel and the native city and contains the interests of 12 nations, the chief business buildings and houses 30,000 foreign nationals. Before the outbreak of hostilities (Aug. 1937) the Japanese residents numbered 28,000 of whom 18,000 resided in Chapel, and Japanese property interests were estimated as worth $189,500,000 gold. Since the overthrow of the ancient Manchu dynasty and the establishment of the Chinese Republic (Oct. 10, 1911) China has been rent with internecine warfare. The Nanking government called a People's National Convention in Nanking (May 5, 1931). The 450 delegates adopted a Provisional Constitution. which rearranged the executive departments giving the chairman of the State Council (then Gen. Chiang Kai-shek) the power to appoint the heads of ministers. The Chinese government was reorganized (Dec. 12, 1935). The National Government as reorganized is composed of five Yuan (Councils) under the National Government Council (State Council). The Councils are the Executive, Legislative, Judicial, Examination and Supervisory. The Executive Council is the highest executive body of the Government and organizes the ministries to which are entrusted the various executive duties. The Executive Council (Yuan) may be compared to the Cabinet in the Governments of the Western Countries with the chairman of the council holding a position similar to that of Prime Minister The Legislative Council is the highest legislative body and decides on legislation, budgets, war. peace, treaties and international problems. It has a President and a Vice President with between 49 and 99 members appointed by the National Government on the order of the President of the Legislative Council. The Judicial Council has charge of the administration of the law. The Examination Council determines the qualifications of applicants for public service and none can hold a Government position without passing an examination by the Examination Council and having his qualifications determined. The Supervisory Council exercises the powers of impeachment and auditing. The President of the National Government is Lin Shen. The Cabinet of Ministers follows: Minister of Finance-Dr. H. H. Kung. Minister of Publicity-Wang Shih-chieh. Minister of Communications-Chang Kia-ngau. The Japanese have been extending their power over China for the past 50 years, since the SinoJapanese war of 1894. Korea was conquered (1910); Manchuria (1931-32). The border province of Jehol was cut off as a buffer state (1933). Kwantung army troops came through (1935) the Great Wall north of Peiping from Jehol into the province of Chahar which lies between Jehol and Mongolia. The principal Chinese officials in Peiping and Tientsin and in Hopei and Chahar provinces were turned out and replaced by new men acceptable to the Japanese leaders. In effect Chahar was made a demilitarized zone by June of 1935. Japan set up (1937) a so-called independent government in Peiping, called "The Provisional Government of the Republic of China" and (1938) established a second regime "The New Reformed Government of the Republic of China" at Nanking. Japan announced (1938) that it would establish two chartered companies to exploit China. These are the North China Exploitation Company with a capital of 350,000,000 yen and the Central China Development Company with a capital of 100.000.000 yen. Fighting broke out between China and Japan (July 7, 1937) and since then large areas of the provinces have been occupied by the Japanese invaders. The area of the free provinces is put at 1,018,218 square miles. The Japanese established (1940) at Nanking a so-called central government under Wang-Chingwei, dedicated to end the war and establish a new economic relationship, The monetary unit is the yuan. It was revalued (Aug. 1, 1940) at approximately 7 cents in American money. The budget (1939) was estimated to balance at $2,850,000,000. Chief exports are animal products, oils, tallow, wax, seeds, raw cotton, raw silk, hides, skin, leather, tea, chemicals, metals, minerals, piece goods, paper, cereals, beans and peas. The imports include cotton, wool, metals, fishery products, tobacco, chemicals, dyes, paints, coal, coke, machinery and armaments. Trade is principally with the United States, Japan, Germany and Great Britain. Much commerce passes through Hong Kong. Chinese Industrial Cooperatives have more than 2,000 units with a capital investment of 30,000,000 yuan and are producing goods valued at more than 9,000,000 yuan monthly Education in China is compulsory from six years of age to 12 with the administration in the hands of provincial and district authorities. Enforcement averages less than 50 per cent throughout the lasting two years and the lower four years. There country under two systems of schools, the higher were (1937) 107 higher institutions of learning in 29 technical schools. China, including 42 universities, 36 colleges and Illiteracy is being reduced in not only the provinces under the government of Chiang Kai-shek, but also in the eastern and southern coastal provinces occupied by the Japanese. China has a national Army which gets its recruits through a system of compulsory citizenship service for a period of three years. There is also the regular Army with voluntary and obligatory service for six years and with extended service up to the age of 40 years. Recruits must be between the ages of 20 and 25. The Chinese Navy, since the war with Japan, is practically non-existent and was undergoing a reorganization when hostilities opened. MONGOLIA Mongolia, although nominally of China, was somewhat shaken loose from Chinese adherence during the world war. Outer Mongolia is a republic, but it is recognized by Russia as under Chinese suzerainty. It is bounded on the north by Siberia, on the south by Sinkiang, on the southwest by Turkestan, on the east by China Proper and Manchuria. Its area is about 1,875,000 square miles; the population is about 850,000. Inner Mongolia (1928) declared its allegiance to Nationalist China, but (April 23, 1934) set up an autonomous government in Pailingmiao to handle local affairs. Outer Mongolia governs itself on the Soviet model. The chief means of transportation is by caravan but in recent years motor truck and steamboat lines have been established. Tannu-Tuva, the northwest portion, about 64,000 sq. m. with a population of about 65.000 also governs itself on a Soviet model as a U.S.S.R. protectorate. There is little agriculture, the great plains between the Tarbagatai and Kinghan Mountains being desert, with camels, horses and sheep as principal interests. The religion of the people is Buddhist Lamaism. Chief exports are livestock and animal products. Foreign trade is backed by Soviet capital and the chief trading unit is the Mongo Central Cooperative Society. SINKIANG (Chinese Sinklang, known as the New Dominion, comprises Chinese Turkestan, Kulja and Kashgaria and includes all Chinese dependencies between Turkestan) Mongolia on the north and Thibet on the south. There are Turks, Mohammedans and Chinese residents there. Along the Kashgar and Yarkand |