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measurements to be practically the same as that of light, as had been generally assumed.

Construction of the 100,000,000-volt cyclotron at Berkeley, Calif., was well advanced during the

year.

Etching glass with hydrofluoric acid vapor was found to eliminate troublesome reflections by forming a film of calcium fluoride one-quarter of a wave-length of light in thickness.

An electrostatic generator giving 4,500,000 volts was constructed.

Television pictures were projected on a theater screen 15 by 20 feet in size from a balcony 60 feet away.

Aligned molecules instead of minute crystals produced a nearly 100% efficient polarizing screen, the first to be made entirely of synthetic materials.

A method of detecting airplanes at night by means of the heat rays they emit was invented.

Transmutation of mercury into radioactive gold with a half decay period of 48 minutes was accomplished by bombardment of the mercury with fast neutrons.

Green diamonds were produced by bombarding white ones with atomic particles from the cyclotron and were found to be identical with the naturally occurring and highly prized green diamonds.

Carbon bullets with energies of 96,000,000 electron volts, as powerful as some of the cosmic rays

EARTH A new type of weather map, giving much more information than the old, was inaugurated by the U. S. Weather Bureau.

This country's known oil reserves reached an all-time high, at 19,025,000,000 barrels.

Forecasters were able to make predictions for five to seven days approximately as reliably as the two- or three-day forecasts previously had been, and the reliability of two- and three-day forecasts improved materially.

A new mineral, with the smallest known natural crystals, was discovered in Argentina, and named sarmientite.

Apparatus was built for taking flashlight photographs of the ocean bottom.

A fossil imprint of a jellyfish in the Smithsonian Institution collections was pronounced the world's oldest evidence of life.

A dinosaur neck vertebra three feet across and nearly four feet long was found in Texas.

Several skeletons of Coryphodon, extinct hippopotamus-like animal, were discovered in Colorado.

and six times as powerful as the most energetic atomic projectiles previously produced (those of deuterons or heavy hydrogen), were manufactured by the cyclotron.

Radioactive strontium and barium were produced in pure form for the first time.

Four radioactive forms of germanium, an element similar to lead, were produced by the cyclotron. The theoretical possibility of elements heavier than uranium, the existence of which had been doubted despite claims of experimental discovery. was demonstrated.

Vacuums, reaching a millionth of an atmosphere pressure, higher than ever before employed in chemical technology, were used to extract vitamins from fish oil.

A temperature of 45,000 degrees Fahrenheit, as hot as found on the surfaces of the hottest stars. and a light 50 times as bright as the sun while it lasted, were given by a spark produced by discharging 40,000 kilowatts of electrical energy through a quartz tube.

An infrared photoflash bulb was invented by which instantaneous photographs can be taken in_complete darkness.

Evidence was obtained that the mesotron (middle-weight atomic particle) can exist in at least two states which decompose at quite different

rates.

SCIENCES

ENGINEERING AND

Reports of progress during 1941 should be read with the realization that many important technical advances, both military and industrial, have been made but not announced due to the secrecy necessary for American defense.

A method of locating airplanes by means of radio echoes reflected from them was perfected and put into war use.

Powder bags were made successfully from cotton Instead of silk.

A new 30-caliber carbine with cartridges only half the weight of the .45-caliber pistol cartridges was adopted by the U. S. Army widely to replace the pistol.

Radio antennae that send out transmission in a searchlight beam instead of broadcasting it allowed 50,000 watt modern transmitters to send to foreign areas the equivalent of 1,200,000 watt transmitters with older type aerials.

Full color prints from Kodachrome transparencies were made available commercially.

A new method was disclosed of making stereoscopic pictures by making two pictures on one film and afterwards viewing them with polarizing screens.

Million-volt portable X-ray equipment was put into industrial use radiographing boiler welds and steel castings.

Extensive telephone networks were arranged and tested to send warnings of hostile aircraft to central points and to order squadrons aloft for defense.

A radio receiver which also indicates visually the direction of an airplane from the antenna was put into service.

Direct radio telephone circuits to Lisbon and Panama were opened, radio telephone service was made available to coastal shipping along all of this country's coast line, a radio telephone system which sends twelve channels on a single transmitter was established.

Frequency modulated radio relay stations were successfully used.

A coaxial cable with an ultimate capacity of 480

The most nearly complete plesiosaur skeleton known was found in Colorado.

Fossil termites 25,000,000 years old were found in Germany.

A new type of earthquake wave was discovered. The earth was weighed at intervals of six miles along a traverse from Perth Amboy, N. J., to Los Angeles.

The centenary of America's first magnetic observatory was celebrated in Philadelphia.

Canada and the United States jointly undertook the preparation of an Ice Age Map.

A revision of the Geologic Map of North America was under way with cooperation of Canada, Mexico and countries of the Caribbean.

Two new theories of the earth's interior were presented: one, that it is colloid or jelly-like; the other, that it is solid, containing much dissolved hydrogen.

Measurements of geologic age of rocks by helium method was refined by discovery that retentivity of helium varies with minerals and that magnetite is most retentive.

TECHNOLOGY

conversations was put in service between Stevens Point, Wis., and Minneapolis, Minn., and an '800mile television transmission was demonstrated through this cable.

Toll calls were made by dialling the number wanted in certain distant cities.

A new high-fidelity telephone circuit for radio programs that will transmit sound vibrations up to 15,000 per second was demonstrated.

Sound control in the theater was demonstrated by which voices and music emanate from space, humans speak with animal voices and sounds are remade as desired.

Copper-plating of permanent magnets used in electrical meters was shown to shield them from demagnetizing effects.

New standards for abbreviations, eliminating periods and spaces, were adopted, for example: rpm for revolutions per minute, psi for pounds per square inch, 95 F for 95 degrees of temperature Fahrenheit.

Many plastics and other substitute materials used in automobiles and other machines as a result of the defense emergency gave promise of supplanting the older materials permanently because they are better.

Powder metallurgy, making metal parts from powdered metal under heat and pressure, came into wider use.

Static electrical charges up to 40,000 volts were demonstrated on running rubber-tired motor vehicles.

A new record for low coal consumption per kilowatt-hour for steam-electric power plants was established.

The surface of steel was hardened by a new method using synthetic urea.

Manufacturing industries spent nearly $120,000,000 on research during the war, according to a survey.

To Dr. Edwin H. Armstrong, Columbia University, was awarded the gold Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute, for his achievements in radio.

MEDICAL SCIENCES

Standards for "enriched" white flour were announced by the U. S. Food, Drug and Cosmetic Administration, to become effective Jan. 1, 1942, and production of this flour and of "enriched" bread made with such flour, or with high vitamin yeast or with ordinary flour plus added amounts of nicotinic acid, thiamin and iron was started. A scientific yardstick for planning an adequate daily diet was announced at the National Nutrition Conference for Defense called by President Roosevelt.

"Cure" of gray hair in humans by daily doses of a member of the vitamin B complex, paraaminobenzoic acid, was announced in a report of more than 300 cases, believed to be the first scientific announcement of cure of gray hair in humans.

Influenza A virus was photographed, for the first time, with the aid of the electron microscope which showed it to be one of the smallest diseasecausing substances yet isolated, a spherical particle 11 millimicrons in diameter.

Prospects for control of influenza were improved by_development of a new relatively quick test for influenza virus-neutralizing antibodies, by success in protecting against influenza A 50% of several thousand persons in six institutions by influenza A vaccine given six months before an epidemic and by development of a new vaccine against influenza A which proved even more effective in mouse trials.

First announcement of sulfadiazine spray treatment of burns showed that it promoted healing of burns more rapidly than any other method of treatment, reduced infection to less than 2% and will to some extent eliminate need for plastic surgery to efface scars and correct deformities.

Evidence indicating that domestic barnyard and wild prairie fowl constitute a reservoir of the viruses of equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis encephalitis and that mosquitoes carry the virus was reported.

Possibility that infantile paralysis may be spread by flies appeared in a report that the virus of the disease had been isolated on two occasions from flies caught in the vicinity of excreta from infantile paralysis patients during infantile paralysis epidemics.

Largest encephalitis epidemic on record in the Western Hemisphere occurred in the Northwest during the summer of 1941, attacking more than 3,000 and killing nearly 10% of those attacked. Encouraging results with vaccination against encephalitis and from the use of human valescent or hyperimmune animal serum were reported in Russia.

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Studies suggesting that the infantile paralysis virus invades the body through the mouth and alimentary tract, rather than through the nose and olfactory nerves as previously believed, were reported.

A decline in pneumonia deaths during an influenza epidemic occurred, for the first time on record, during the winter of 1940-1941.

First trials on human patients of gramicidin, germicidal substance from soil bacteria, showed it to be effective in empyema from pneumonia, sinusitis, bladder infections and staphylococcus infections in wounds.

Surgical construction of an artificial esophagus, to replace one closed by lye burns, was accomplished successfully for the second time in the United States.

Evidence that the cause of cirrhosis of the liver is poor diet, and probably a specific vitamin deficiency, appeared in many reports.

Tuberculosis patients were treated with Promin, a new chemical remedy with results that justify continuation of the investigation.

Hope of preventing meningitis appeared in reports that sulfadiazine not only succeeds as a treatment but banishes the meningococci from the patient's nose and throat, thus preventing his Eccoming a healthy carrier of the disease.

A record of no rheumatic fever attacks among 55 patients while taking sulfanilamide continuously from November through June each year between 1936 and 1940 was announced, giving hope that this drug might prove effective in controlling the disease by preventing recurrences.

Sulfathiazole and sulfapyridine offer a four-toone chance for cure of gonorrhea in men within five weeks after beginning of treatment, findings in eight clinics showed.

A method of treating group O blood, the universal donor blood, to make it safer for emergency transfusion, was announced.

Studies showing that hardening of the arteries may be a condition of faulty fat utilization re

sulting from deficiency of the pancreas hormone, lipocaic, were reported.

Studies indicating heparin, anti-blood clotting agent, might be useful in preventing adhesions after abdominal operations were reported.

Deaths of two boys from bubonic plague, increase of the infection among wild rodents and eastward spread of the infection in these animals prompted the Surgeon General of the U. S. Public Health Service to call a Plague ontrol Conference which recommended: 1-Extension of anti-plague measures; 2-Appropriation by federal and local authorities of $1,800,000 for plague control.

Sulfathiazole was reported, on basis of successful trials in mice, to be a potential anti-plague remedy.

It was demonstrated that bodily changes closely similar to those of profound pituitary-gland deficiency can be caused by chronic under-nutrition.

The urine of boys having muscular dystrophy was shown to contain large amounts of female sex hormones.

Treatment of sexual deficiency in the male was advanced by development of a synthetic male sex hormone, methyl testosterone, which is effective when given by mouth.

Existence of a potent sex hormone, estriol, which is found only in human beings, was announced. The synthetic female sex hormone, diethylstilbestrol, was released for general medical use by the U. S. Food, Drug and Cosmetic Administration. Encouraging results in treating the muscle weakness disease, myasthenia gravis, by surgical removal of the thymus gland were reported.

Discovery that other tissues of the body than the thyroid gland can use iodine and may convert it into a chemical like thyroxine, thyroid gland hormone, was announced.

All steroids having hormonal properties will produce na rosis if given in pharmacological doses in a manner so that it is absorbed rapidly, but steroids devoid of hormonal properties do not exhibit this action, it was reported.

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For the relief of high blood pressure improved kidney extracts, renin from kidneys of animals other than that being treated, the enzyme, tyrosinase, and a new surgical operation were reported as promising but still in the experimental stage, with a five-year-progress report of an surgical operation showing striking prolongation of life for patients with malignant hypertension. Kidneys with reduced blood circulation liberate a substance which acts upon a special pseudoglobulin in the blood and the product produced by this action is responsible for the production of experimental high blood pressure, it was reported.

In vitro studies indicated that kidneys under anaerobic conditions are unable to destroy phenolic compounds which elevate blood pressure but will do so under aerobic conditions.

Possible advances in cancer treatment still in the experimental stage, included use of radiostrontium for metastatic bone cancer; a concentration method of radio-therapy for resistant cancers of mouth, larynx and pharynx; castration and female sex hormone treatment for cancer of the prostrate gland; blocking blood circulation to increase skin resistant to irradiation thereby enabling use of larger doses; and, in mice only so far, use of lithium or boron-containing dyes to increase destructive action of neutron rays.

Pattern of cancerous growth may be influenced by surface forces, it was discovered from observations of cancer growth in the frog's eye.

Radio-phosphorus was announced as a promising treatment for the serious blood disease, polycythemia.

Anti-rickets action of vitamin D, it was reported, is due partly to its effect on the kidneys which it prevents from eliminating phosphorus.

Sulfathiazole ointment was reported a successful remedy for common skin diseases such as acne, impetigo, infected eczema and boils.

Transfusions of blood and sugar solutions were given by injecting into the bone marrow, a method that can supplement transfusions into veins in certain cases.

Chemical test for incipient toluene poisoning was announced.

Artificial feeding of a full meal through the veins instead of the mouth came one step closer through development of a digest of casein, milk protein, with papain, digestive ferment, which proved as effective as whole liver in promoting production of proteins in blood plasma of dogs. It was shown that the animal organism cannot synthesize the methyl group which therefore must be supplied in the diet. The major, if not the sole source of the methyl group is the amino acid. methionine.

With the tagged atom technique it was demonstrated that the proteins of the animal body are subject to a far more rapid, continuous process of metabolism than has been suspected.

A 51⁄2 mile delayed-opening parachute drop furnished physiologists with valuable data on the reactions of the human body during such a terrific descent.

Two of the principal factors influencing the intensity of the symptoms of "bends" in the bodies of aviators and deep-sea divers were shown to be the total atmospheric pressure and the pressure produced by surface tension.

At pressure altitudes between 41,000 and 42,000 feet after preliminary denitrogenation and oxygen breathing, men performed physical exercise (work) equivalent to 1,200 foot-pounds per minute for a full minute and a trained woman subject made a record for her sex by working for 15 seconds at 1.200-foot-pounds per minute at a pressure elevation of 41,200 feet.

What may possibly be the first case in 30 years of laboratory-acquired infantile paralysis was reported.

Three new sulfa drugs, sulfapyrazine, sulfahydantoin, and sulfathiazolin, were announced, the last being put to clinical test because of low toxicity and high therapeutic value.

A School of Nutrition, believed first of its kind in the world, was established at Cornell University.

Discovery of an eighth member of the vitamin B group, folic acid, was announced.

A standard for oleomargarine permitting its enrichment with vitamins A and D was announced by the United States Food, Drug and Cosmetic Administration.

More rapid diagnosis of virus diseases seemed promised by development of a collodion fixation method for identification and typing of viruses. Discovery of a previously unknown anatomical structure immediately below the bony floor of the middle ear and believed concerned with regulation of the blood circulation was announced.

Large scale field trials of the Cox anti-typhus fever vaccine were inaugurated in Bolivia.

Long-time immunity to such virus diseases as yellow fever is due to the fact that the virus remains in the body after an attack of the disease. it was suggested.

A coumarin compound from spoiled sweet clover was announced as a possible effective and cheap substitute for heparin, anti-blood clotting agent. Successful use of vitallium, alloy of chromium, nickel and cobalt, as plates for repair of damaged human skulls was announced.

Development in Gautemala of large plantations of cinchona trees, thus providing a potential Western Hemisphere source of quinine, was announced.

The flotation process was adapted from the mining industry to production of a high-vitamin, high-protein flour from wheat.

The malaria rate among troops in the United States was reduced to one-third of the 1918 rate, partly because of effective mosquito control measures carried on in nearly 100 camps. posts and stations.

A highly compact, lightweight, tasty and nourishing ration was evolved by the Army for parachutists and for delivery by air to troops engaged in mobile assault operations.

Tablets containing vitamins A, B, (thiamin), B2 (riboflavin), C. D and nicotinic acid were ordered as dietary supplement to troops stationed in far northern latitudes.

In military medicine, the use of high concentrations of oxygen has been made practicable in the forward zone by the construction of a portable. closed-circuit type of apparatus which uses only 1 liter of oxygen per minute.

Publication was begun, by the American Medical Association, of a bimonthly journal entitled "War Medicine," edited by the Committee on Information, Division of Medical Sciences, National Research Council.

An apparatus for warming cold, refrigerated blood was described.

Hope for future prevention or cure of nervous disorders caused by noise was provided by researches on noise-sensitive rats: Vitamin B, was found to prevent the rats' convulsions, glandular treatment relieved them, combination of previously harmless noise with shock caused them, and heredity was found to play a part in producing noise-sensitivity.

"Protracted shock," most dangerous complication of insulin shock treatment for mental disease, can be predicted, prevented, or, if desired, produced at will, it was found: vitamin B, prevents

it or shortens duration if given after it has developed.

A method of immunizing against epileptic seizures was suggested when it was found that a seizure intentionally induced by electric shock in the safety of a physician's office makes the patient temporarily resistant to recurring seizures. The violent convulsions accompanying metrazol treatment of mental disease were softened, and in some cases the muscular contractions abolished entirely, by use with the metrazol of the easily obtained medicine, epsom salt, or pyridine and some of its derivatives.

The electric shock treatment used for mental disease (passage of current through brain for very short time) was demonstrated to cause a partial loss of memory in the patient, particularly for events occurring just before the shock.

Electric shock therapy was used increasingly to supersede insulin and metrazol shock therapies in the treatment of some mental diseases.

New knowledge about the value of the vitamins in the treatment of some acute mental diseases and neurological disorders, not only some alcoholic psychoses but some delirious states usually attributed to senility, was discovered.

Warning that extreme caution is necessary in use of X-rays on women who might be pregnant was seen in the discovery that microcephalic idiocy in an unborn child followed X-ray treatment of the mother for a supposed tumor.

Fixed abnormal habits in rats were not broken up by dosage with metrazol even when convulsions were produced, a finding which affects present theories on how the drug acts to cure mental disease.

Deprivation, even though resented, makes a structive, experiments on child groups revealed. group more united and cooperative, but less con

Anxiety can persist and cause the learning of new peculiar habits long after the original cause for fear is gone, it was demonstrated by animal experiments.

strated that both physical and mental traits of A fourteen-year study of identical twins demonindividuality persist from infancy into adolescence. The Rorschach test, well-known ink-blot test of personality and imagination, was adapted for group use to make it available for selection of military personnel.

Gasoline vapor, used as an anesthetic, has effects similar to those of alcoholic vapors, it was found in experiments on animals and a human subject.

humans associated with alcoholism, was provided
New light on a vitamin deficiency disease in
identical ill when over-fed on raw fish.
by the discovery that fishes and foxes suffer an

Short tempers, inefficiency, inattention, uncertain memory and confusion of thought were found to result from a diet only slightly low in vitamin B,, but continued over a period of months.

Alcohol was found to reduce the ability of the body to respond to severe exposure to heat.

Progesterone, a sex hormone, was used successfully to reduce sexual excitability in monkeys and was recommended to physicians for trial on women patients in need of temporary medical aid.

The abstraction ability to sort by color, believed a function of the important frontal lobes of the brain, was found in monkeys, which may therefore be used experimentally to learn more about this brain area.

Learning of the simple type known to psychologists as "conditioning" is slowed but not eliminated when the important brain cortex and sub-cortical parts of the nervous system are "knocked out by the drug nembutal, animal experiments showed.

Doubt regarding the exact function of the brain's important frontal lobes was raised by experiments showing that monkeys without this brain area can remember where to reach for food even after a ten-second delay.

By the learning process known as conditioning, it is possible to gain the ability to interrupt the brain waves-electric impulses originating in the brain cells.

Eight persons were conditioned to control at will, changes in the electric resistance of the skin, an apparently unconscious and involuntary

reaction.

Quantum theory was successfully applied to sensory experiences, particularly hearing and vision.

A change in only eight or nine molecules of the visual purple in the eye's retina was found to be sufficient to produce the sensation of sight.

The excitement of powerful emotions was found to affect the way in which the two eyes work,

together in the perception of distances and depth, important in the testing of military pilots.

Color blindness was reported partly corrected by dosage with vitamin A.

The same tone is perceived as of slightly different pitch by the two ears of even normal-hearing persons, it was reported.

Bats ears were found sensitive to high-pitched sounds above the limits of human audibility, and they guide themselves by echoes of their own supersonic cries.

Fatigue produced by highly skilled tasks was found to have different psychological effects from that caused by simple monotonous tasks; accurate timing in the first ability to break down.

Conditions necessary for maintenance of high

national morale were studied by psychologists pooling their talents and research resources.

Scales were developed for measuring the level of morale of various groups within the nation. Listening posts were established to record and analyze radio propaganda and methods of classification and interpretation were developed.

A new branch of psychology-military psychology -was recognized when the Army started a school to train scientists in this profession.

Documents dealing with German psychological warfare were assembled and analyzed and intensive study of this field was made cooperatively under direction of two committees.

Psychological research centers were established at flying fields of the Army Air Corps.

Science Clubs of America

Science Clubs of America is comprised of amateur and professional scientists of all ages. The organization is international and non-profit making. In November, 1941, it numbered 30,000 members in more than 800 elubs organized in every state and Puerto Rico, Alaska, Cuba, Hawaii, Canada, British West Indies and Portugal.

Science Clubs of America seeks to weld together the thousands of laymen and scientists, teachers and students, youths and adults, amateurs and professionals into a great movement for understanding and applying science in neighborhood, community, national and world affairs. Believing that the knowledge and application of science and its methods is essential to the very existence of our civilization, this international organization is sponsored by Science Service, a non-profit institution for the popularization of science, 1719 N Street, N.W., Washington, D. C. (New York office, 310 Fifth Avenue). Watson Davis is director.

There are three types of membership: 1-in Science Clubs; 2-as Associates; 3-as Patrons. Science Clubs vary in size from 4 to 150 members and each is sponsored by an adult who is responsible in large measure for the splendid progress made by clubs.

The members of Science Clubs of America have their laboratories and workshops in cellars and attics, school classrooms and labs, in industrial plants and museum lecture rooms Experiments and study of the boys, girls, men and women range through the myriad branches of science. In some cases the work is of a general nature; in others ultra-specific.

The national headquarters supplies membership paraphernalia as well as a wide variety of material for the support and direction of the club and individual program. The official organ is the Science News Letter which runs club news weekly with a special Science Observer issue eight times a year expressly for members of Science Clubs of America.

The success of the Science Clubs of America depends largely on the eager desire of the members

to learn science, but it has been greatly supplemented by the support of scientific organizations throughout the country. These include academies of science, museums, colleges, universities and other such through which it has been possible to set up Science Centers. Here clubs and individuals meet to discuss and demonstrate what they have accomplished. In these Centers are held such functions as Fairs, Congresses, Salons of Photography, Conferences, all designed to help young and mature scientists in an area to know one another and to acquaint the public with what goes on in science.

In September, 1941, clubs outside of New York City which were affiliated with The American Institute Science and Engineering Clubs were transferred to Science Clubs of America. The American Institute of the City of New York cooperatively continues to carry on the New York programs for clubs, many of which have been affiliated with the Institute for the past 14 years. Science Service, the world's only science news syndicate, provides thorough, accurate reports of the latest developments and discoveries in all fields of science. These reports are distributed to newspapers and magazines in two forms:

1. A daily News Report containing latest news reported by wire or mail. This is supplemented by a service called "Wire Stories by Mail," which contains advance releases on scientific conventions and other important events. Leading scientists cooperate with Science Service writers so that reports can be mailed several days before other agencies send wires on the same subjects.

2. A weekly Science Page containing exclusive news and feature stories and pictures for dally or weekly use. Another strong feature is the "Experimental Science for You" section which carries experimental material written especially for the Science Clubs of America.

Trustees for Science Service are nominated by the National Academy of Science, the National Research Council, the American Association for the National Academy of Sciences, the National Estate, and the journalistic profession.

American Mother of the Year

Source: The Golden Rule Foundation Mothers' Rule Committee; New York City

The American Mother is selected annually from nominations sent to the committee. The choice is based on these requirements; she must be a successful mother, as evidenced by the character and achievements of her children; she must embody those traits most highly regarded in mothers courage. moral strength, patience, affection, kindness, understanding, homemaking ability; she must have a sense of social and world relationships and must have been active in her own community betterment or in some other service for public benefit.

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The Mothers' Day paraphrase of the Golden Rule reads:

Omaha, Neb.
Dallas, Tex.

Wooster, Ohio.
Rochester, Minn.
Danville, Ky.

"Whatsoever ye would that others should do for your Mother if she were in need, and whatsoever your Mother would do for the needy if she had the opportunity, do in Her Name and in Her Honor for other Mothers and their children, victims of the wars in Europe and Asia, or present-day maladjustments in our own land."

Candy Consumption in U. S. 16.9 Pounds Per Capita

The per capita consumption of confectionery in the United States reached an all time high of 16.9 pounds (1940) compared with 15.7 pounds (1939), the Department of Commerce reported (May 31, 1941). This is an increase of 72% against an advance in national income of 75%. The sale of

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confectionery (1940) was approximately 2.250,000,000 pounds with an estimated value of $336,000,000. The survey is based on voluntary reports of 273 manufacturers of confectionery and competitive chocolate products whose sales comprise 70% for the entire industry.

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ASTRONOMICAL CALCULATIONS FOR 1942

The Astronomical Calculations, beginning on the next page, are in local Mean Time, except as otherwise indicated, and are made expressly for The World Almanac by H. F. M. Hedrick, Washington, D. C. Calendar for 1942

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In the temperate zones, these are four in number: | days in the southern hemisphere are shorter than Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter; beginning the nights. respectively at the vernal equinox, the summer solstice, the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice; for which, in the north temperate zone, the approximate dates are March 21, June 21, September 23, and December 21.

In the south temperate zone, the vernal equinox or the beginning of Spring is September 23, the summer solstice or the beginning of summer is December 21, and so on.

The earth's axis continually points in the same direction, and if the axis were perpendicular to the plane of the earth's orbit around the sun there would be no change of seasons. Day and night would everywhere be of equal length and equable conditions of temperature would prevail.

But the axis is tilted 23° 27' away from a perpendicular to the orbit, and only in March and September is the axis at right angles to the direction of the sun.

In those months occur the equinoxes, when day and night are equal the world over.

In June, the North Pole is tilted 23° 27' toward the sun and the days in the northern hemisphere are longer than the nights; at the same time, the

In December the North Pole is tilted 23° 27′ away from the sun, and the nights in the northern hemisphere are longer than the days; at the same time the nights in the southern hemisphere are shorter than the days.

The heating influence of the sun increases with the length of the day and with the sun's altitude at noon. The greatest daily accession of heat is. therefore, at the time of the summer solstice.

In June, in the north temperate zone, the heat received by day far exceeds the loss through radiation by night, and it is not until July or August that the two become equal and the maximum temperature of the year is experienced.

In December, the heat received by day fails to make good the loss by night, and it is not until January or February that gain and loss become equal and the thermometer ceases to show a downward tendency.

The seasons in 1942 (Eastern Standard Time) begin as follows: Vernal Equinox (Spring), March 21, 1:11 A. M.: Summer Solstice (Summer), June 21. 8:17 P. M.; Autumnal Equinox (Autumn). September 23, 11:17 A. M.; Winter Solstice (Winter) December 22, 6:40 A. M.

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