sation, and to supply that quantity of heat and electricity given out by the steam, if a communication is formed between the positive or strong heat and the boiler, the boiler being in an exhausted state absorbs the greater or positive heat in shocks, or as flame on points. And if the boiler is insulated as there is no other communication, or rather the communication is diminished, the absorbing power becomes stronger, owing to the same quantity of steam being drawn off, while the means of conducting the caloric to the inside of the boiler is also cut off from the ground, and therefore it is supplied from the atmosphere by points.

But all the negative electricity is only electricity in a lower state of condensation, or of a lower temperature. It is caloric of a lower temperature than positive electricity, which is caloric of a higher temperature. And it will be found that there may be two positive electricities indicated by electrometers, and that these will attract instead of repelling each other, if these electricities are taken from such objects as are very different in temperature, so that the one electricity shall be much more concentrated and intense than the other.

Suppose electricity a very subtle fluid, extending every where, filling all empty space in bodies, and acting under a strong elastic compression. Let this fluid be supposed caloric or fire, or what gives the sensation of heat when it is accumulating on our sensative organs, and the sensation of cold when it is departing from them and diminishing; but when stationary we have not any sensation of it. It may also be supposed, that in its movement along unanimated bodies, that all the effects it produces were caused by its movements. What gives rise to these movements? comes to be the enquiry.

We perceive friction to be a powerful instrument in accumulating electricity, and what is the mode of operation? How does friction cause its accumulation? Is it not like working with a pole in a quicksand? By the motion of the pole the sand is moved, and the compressure that is acting on the water makes it rush into the empty space made by the pole, and the more the pole is agitated the more the water rushes round it and takes the place of the sand, until there is an atmosphere of water round the pole, and which will retain its situation for some time, but will be again slowly absorbed by the sand which will regain its former firmness, and an equilibrium will be again established between the sand and the water some short time after the pole has been allowed to remain at rest. It is the same with all bodies and electricity; if they are rubbed the friction opens their pores and the compressed electric matter rushes into every crevice, and by its pressure from the atmosphere retains its place for some time: even the atmosphere around the body having been disturbed, the electric matter is by the friction of the body increased beyond what it can contain, and it then extends itself in an atinosphere round the body. The friction not only creates vacuities in the pores of the body rubbed, but it also carries away what is

accumulated and gives it to the surrounding atmosphere; and if the atmosphere be dry and calm, it will be retained around the body without dispersing for a considerable time, and form as it were a cloud round the rubbed body. The bodies from which this cloud of electricity is drawn would be those in the vicinity, unless it were drawn by conductors from a distance. All bodies that are much rubbed or hammered by their vibratory motion make room for the atmosphere of electricity to rush in and form around them. The electricity is not visible to the sight but when it is moving in an insulated concentrated mass, when it jumps from one conductor to another, or when passing along a wire it makes it red hot. It is only in a vibratory or moving state that it is perceived. When we are insulated and charged with it, we do not seem sensible of it; it is only on its ingress and egress when that is not performed by points, that we feel its operations. If points are used, we may not be sensible either of receiving it or discharging it, for it flows them in a smooth imperceptible stream.

We may thus account for an atmosphere of electricity; but why should that atmosphere attract straws and feathers: or a piece of paper be fixed against a wall by it. It must be by a stream of electricity being made to revolve round the paper or wax; it makes a magnet of the body, and while the property continues, the bodies continue to attach themselves. It creates a vacuum which those other bodies supply till its property is gone: and this process is the same as that in the galvanic trough till the equilibrium of temperature is destroyed, and it is this which produces all the phenomena. Those bodies are magnets, and magnets are nothing but bodies with their parts arranged like the galvanic pile, and circulating a quantity of electric matter through them; but they have the advantage of not requiring any new supply of material, and their power is constant and does not depend on any new supply of acid, or zinc, or other material. The grand conclusion is, that the world of nature is only one large galvanic apparatus, by means of which all the changes that ever have or ever will take place are accomplished.

SECTION III.

The theory of electricity is still unascertained, and it may truly be affirmed, that notwithstanding the innumerable experiments which have been made, since the time of Dr. Franklin, that he who first wrote upon the subject appears to have had clearer and more consistent ideas of the operation of that fluid than any of the later authors. This is confirmed by the statements and quotations from his writings in a late number of your periodical. That there is but one fluid that has a tendency to extend itself throughout all bodies in the world, and that it produces its effects by its excess and deficiency when there wasany thing to cause that variation; that everything had a natural capacity for holding a certain quantity of that fluid; that it might be so altered as to contain more or less, in the same way as sponge can be made to hold more or less water by the pressure being varied.

These and other observations have confirmed me in opinion that electric matter is only a very rare elastic fluid in an unactive state, which is not perceived nor operates but when in motion. It appears even questionable whether it is elastic of itself, or whether the elasticity it possesses is not derived from the caloric imparted to it. Water becomes elastic by having heat imparted to it, and why may not electricity do the same?

That electricity is influenced by caloric in producing it in great quantities, or in causing a difference in the equilibrium which bodies naturally possess when the temperature is unchanged, cannot be denied. The main question is, whether is electricity and calorie the same element in different states of existence, or are they two simple elements of nature?

It appears for several reasons that electricity is a simple fluid, and the most subtle and insinuating of any in nature, and that it is not felt or perceived but when in motion. It is when in motion only that it produces sensible effects; that it is put in motion by bringing bodies near to each other or into contact, which have different capa cities for retaining or parting with it, which causes one substance to part with a portion, and another to imbibe it. For example, suppose in a room there were lead, wax, water, oil, mercury, and other different metals, and that the room had arrived at its fixed and steady temperature, then there would be no change of electricity, the galvanic stream would be circulating so smoothly as not to be perceptible, no motion among the parts would be perceived. But if any change of temperature were induced on any one body, it would change its state of electricity accordingly, and both the temperature and electricity of all the rest would be affected, the galvanic currents would be increased, and it would be some time before the equilibrium could be restored, both with respect to the temperature and electrical state of the bodies. Were lead and wax placed at a distance from each other, each would have its proper temperature and electricity; but if they were suddenly brought into contact, the wax would impart its heat to the lead, or rather the lead would absorb the heat from the wax with avidity, and the temperature of the wax would be reduced, while that of the lead would increase until such time as an equilibrium took place, when the lead could absorb or retain no more. This would disturb the temperature of all the other substances in the room, and an exchange would be making in all of them, until each had such a state as to give out as much heat and electricity as it received.

There can be no change of temperature without a change of electricity, and no change of electricity without a change of temperature; and though these changes may not always be discernible, yet may be inferred from the consequences, that heat has on all bodies the power of changingt heir temperature and bulk, which cannot be done without disturbing the balance or equilibrium that exists in the electrical state of the bodies.

it

If electricity is considered as a very subtle fluid, set in motion by

a vibratory force induced upon it by any other body whatever; it will cause a change in the electrical state of the bodies on which the motion has been induced. If friction or rubbing of two bodies produces heat, that rubbing produces electricity at the same time, or rather I should say, it sets it in motion, by destroying the equilibrium, and thereby renders it visible, by causing a superabundance on one body and a deficiency in others, it thereby increases the stream and makes it perceptible.

It is only when there are two or more bodies whose natural state has been disturbed, which puts it in our power to discover this fluid. It is not the quantity in any body that we can estimate by the electrometer or any instrument, it is only the difference of electricity between the bodies: the excess of one above the other. For instance: if two bodies are both very highly electrified, and the electrometer placed between them, if both had the same quantity the electrometer would not be moved; but diminish the one or increase the other, and then the electrometer would shew the difference; and it must be observed that the negative is always the one where there is a deficiency, or which contains the least electrical matter; and it will be found that the one which is in excess, is always the one which has always an excess of temperature, though the difference may not be easily estimated.

When bodies vibrate with a certain velocity the heat becomes sensible; when they vibrate quicker, they begin to affect the eye and produce vision though in a solid state; but when reduced to gas and inflamed, they increase the light or vision, and also send out more heat; and this by both increasing the vibratory motion and furnishing the molecules of electricity, which are set free by flame when the bodies are consumed by combustion.

When heat is communicated to water in a boiler from the furnace through the boiler plate, it is by means of the vibratory motion that is induced on the boiler plate by the intense vibratory motion in the furnace; there being least resistance in the inside of the boiler from a deficiency of electric matter, every vibration creates a motion among the particles of the water, and makes a vacuity into which the more subtle fluid of electricity rushes in, and this continues until the interior acquires such a motion as to throw off the electric matter along with the water in steam as fast as it is communicated, or to burst the boiler if an opening is not left for its exit. there were a stream of cold water rushing over the top of the boiler, the heat or electricity would be carried off as quickly as it was formed, and no bursting would take place: water being a good conductor of electricity.

But if

Electricity it was before stated would be discoverable wherever there was a difference of temperature, and that in a room where every object had the same temperature, the equilibrium would be destroyed by placing the objects in new situations with respect to each other, or connecting them by better conductors, for instance by wet threads, and the electricity would be also changed. The

X

galvanic circle or current is changed by the conductors, and it is easy to perceive why a damp atmosphere in a room should prevent the accumulation of electricity: it forms a far better medium of accommodation among the bodies, and dispenses the electrical matter as fast as it is collected to all the different parts of the apartment. All articles in a house or in the world, are nothing but a portion of a galvanic apparatus of various capacities for the electric fluid, and for conducting it from one body to another: the currents of electricity are circulating through the whole, and preserving them in a state of equilibrium.

The bleaching process may be explained as follows from this theory whenever any body is bent, or its parts by any means put out of their natural position, some of the parts of the body must separate if they be placed at greater distances from each other, and other parts may be forced closer together. By agitation or action a movement among the parts is created, and electricity being a most insinuating fluid rushes into the vacant spaces by its elastic pressure, and acts as a wedge separating the parts: by continued agitation the electricity is increased, and by its density the parts are so removed as to allow the colouring matter to unite with the soap or other bodies, and be removed. It is also probable that portions of the colouring matter may be carried off by the continued stream of electrical matter, which is made by boiling to pass through the subjects boiled, in the same way as it is found to carry particles of gold or other metal with it when passing through them.

Even without a knowledge of the experiments of Mr. Crosse and Mr. Weeks, by which the influence of galvanic electricity was shown in bringing into action animal existence, it would scarcely have been possible not to have suspected that both vegetable and animal growth and existence was largely indebted to that power.

Newcastle, 24th Sept., 1842.

An Account of Improvements in Electrical Batteries.
By Mr. JOHN CUTHBERTSON.

*

In the year 1774, Mr. E. Nairne made an electrical machine far superior in acting power to any that had been made before, and a battery more judiciously constructed and larger than any former one, with which he made a number of interesting experiments. One in particular, affords an accurate measure of the power of his battery, compared with such batteries as have been made since that time. I mean the experiment of melting or dispersing a metallic wire. His battery contained 50 square feet of coated surface; and he found that it was capable of receiving a charge so high, that the discharge melted 45 inches of iron wire of part of an inch in diameter, which answers to about of an inch in length for each square

From Nicholson's Journal.