those individuals who now relied on their protection, an arrangement was effected with the king of the French for granting them passports to pass through his dominions, on their route to America, or any other country to which they chose to resort. Another instance occurred in 1838, on the return of prince Louis Bonaparte from America, whither he had been sent about two years before foi attempting to raise a rebellion at Strasburg. On his return to Europe he made choice of Switzerland for his residence, and possessed an estate in the canton of Thurgau. The proximity of Switzerland to France was, however, a reason for Louis Philippe to demand his expulsion, which being refused by the Swiss, there was every reason to expect a war between them and the French, had not Louis voluntarily departed for England, and thereby prevented a rupture which might have been fatal to Swiss independence.

THE HISTORY OF ITALY.

THIS delightful region of Europe, as celebrated for its genial climate, as for being the seat of that mighty empire which of old gave laws to the world; this classic land, where all that is noble in art and science have flourished; though shorn of its former glories, still claims the traveller's homage and the attention of the historian. Before Rome had absorbed all the vital power of Italy, this country was thickly inhabited, and for the most part, by civilized nations. In the north of Italy alone, which offered the longest resistance to the Romans, dwelt the Gauls. Farther south, on the Arno and the Tiber, a number of small tribes, such as the Etrusci, the Samnites, and Latins, endeavoured to find safety by forming confederacies. Less closely united, and often hostile to each other, were the Greek colonies of Lower Italy, called Magna Grecia.

Italy, in the middle ages, was divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Italy. The first division comprehended all the states situated in the vicinity of the Po; the second extended between the former and the kingdom of Naples; which formed the third. At present, it is divided into the following independent states, which are not connected with each other by any political tie:-1. The kingdom of Sardinia; 2. Lombardy, or Austrian Italy (including Milan, and Venice); 3. the duchy of Parma; 4. the duchy of Modena (including Massa); 5. the grand-duchy of Tuscany 6. the duchy of Lucca; 7. the republic of San Marino; 8. the Papal dominions; 9. the kingdom of Naples, or the two Sicilies. Italia did not become the general name of this country until the age of Augustus. It had been early imperfectly known to the Greeks under the name of Hesperia. Ausonia, Saturnia, and Enotria, were also names applied by them to the southern part, with which alone they were at first acquainted. The name Italia was at first merely a partial hame for the southern extremity, until it was gradually extended to the whole country.

The modern history of Italy begins with the fall of the western empire. Romulus Augustus, its last feeble emperor, was dethroned by his German guards. Odoacer, their leader, assumed the title of king of Italy, and thus this country was separated from the Roman empire. But this valiant barbarian could not communicate a spirit of independence and energy to the degenerate Italians; nothing but amalgamation with a people

In a state of nature could effect their regeneration. Such a people already stood on the frontiers of Italy. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, instigated by Zeno, emperor of the East, overthrew the kingdom of Odoacer, in 493, and reduced all Italy. His Goths spread from the Alps to Sicily. In the lagoons of the Adriatic alone, some fugitives, who had fled from the devastations of Attila, maintained their freedom. Theodoric, who combined the vigour of the north with the cultivation of the south, is justly termed the Great. But the energy of his people soon yielded to Roman corruption. Totila, for ten years, contested in vain the almost completed conquest with the military skill of Belisarius. He fell in battle in 552; after which Italy was annexed to the eastern empire, under an exarch, who resided at Ravenna. But the first exarch, Narses, sunk under the intrigues of the Byzantine court, and his successor neglected the defence of the passes of the Alps. The country was then invaded by the Lombards, who, under Alboin, their chief or king, conquered the territory which afterwards received its name from them.

The kingdom of the Lombards included Upper Italy, Tuscany, and Umbria. Alboin also created the duchy of Benevento, in Lower Italy, with which he invested Zotto. The whole of Lombardian Italy was divided into thirty great fiefs, under dukes, counts, &c., which soon became hereditary. Together with the new kingdom, the confederation of the fugitives in the lagoons still subsisted in undisturbed freedom. The islanders, by the election of their first doge, Anafesto, in 697, established a central government, and the republic of Venice was founded. Ravenna, the seat of the exarch, with Romagna, the Pentapolis, or the five maritime cities (Rimini, Pisaro, Fano, Sanigaglia, and Ancona), and almost all the coasts of Lower Italy, where Amalfi and Gaeta had dukes of their own, of the Greek nation, remained unconquered, together with Sicily and the capital, Rome, which was governed by a patrician in the name of the emperor. The slight dependence on the court of Byzantium disappeared almost entirely in the beginning of the eighth century, when Leo, the Isaurian, exasperated the orthodox Italians by his attack of images. The cities expelled his officers, and chose consuls and a senate, as in ancient times. Rome acknowledged, not indeed the power, but a certain paternal authority of its bishops, even in secular affairs, in consequence of the respect which their holiness procured them. The popes, m their efforts to defend the freedom of Rome against the Lombards, forsaken by the court of Byzantium, generally had recourse to the Frank ish kings.

In consideration of the aid expected against king Astolphus, pope Stephen III., in 753, not only anointed Pepin, who, in the preceding year, had been made king of the Franks, with the approbation of pope Zacharas, but with the assent of the municipality of Rome, appointed him patrician, as the imperial governor had hitherto been denominated. Charlemagne made war upon Desiderius, the king of the Lombards, in defence of the Roman church, took him prisoner in his capital, Pavia, united his empire with the Frankish monarchy, and eventually gave Italy a king in his son Pepin. But his attempts against the duchy of Benevento, the independence of which was maintained by duke Arichis, against the republics in Lower Italy, where Naples, Amalfii, and Gaeta, in particular, had become rich by navigation and commerce, were unsuccessful. The exarchate, with the five cities, had already been presented to the pope by Pepin, in 756, and Charlemagne confirmed the gift; but the secular supremacy of the popes was not completed until the pontificate of Innocent III., about the year 1200. Their rank, however, among the ecclesiastics of the west, and the temporal power now acquired, gave them an ascendency ver the clergy and laity in Europe, which they failed not to improve unti y were acknowledged as the infallible heads of the church.

quire into the affair. The only discovery of this inquisitorial tribunal was that secret societies had existed in Poland since 1821. In May, 1829, Nicholas was crowned at Warsaw. In 1828, however, a secret society had been instituted, for the purpose of gaining over the officers of the army to the cause of independence; and to their agency is the insurrection of 1830 to be attributed. It appears, nevertheless, that it was immediately occasioned by a sham conspiracy got up by the Russian police, who had thus induced a number of young men to betray themselves, and crowded the prisons with their victims. Not only Polish officers, youth of the military school, and students, had been gained over to the cause of the patriots, but the greater part of the citizens, and the chief nobles, were ready to encourage an effort to save themselves from what they now foresaw the occupation of Poland by a Russian army, and the marching of the Polish troops to the south of Europe. Such was the state of things when the insurrection of Warsaw broke out, Nov. 19, 1830. A young officer entered the military school, on the evening of that day, and called the youth to arms. They immediately proceeded to Belvidere, the residence of Constantine, about two miles from the city, for the purpose of seizing his person. They were joined, on the way, by the students of the university, and forced their way into the palace; but the prince was concealed in a clothes-press, by a servant, until he could make his escape by a secret door. Another party of cadets and students paraded the streets, calling the citizens to arms, and they were joined by the Polish troops. The arsenal was seized, with forty thousand stand of arms, and the insurrection became general. On the next morning forty thousand troops and citizens were in arms, and the Russians were expelled from Warsaw. The administrative council was summoned to preserve order; and, to give more influence to its measures, several of the most distinguished Poles were invited to sit with it. Measures were taken for the organization of a national guard, and of a new police and municipal government. On the 3d of December, the prince was allowed to leave the neighbournood of Warsaw, with three regiments of Russian cavalry, and two regiments of infantry, without opposition. On the 5th, General Chlopicki was proclaimed dictator till the meeting of the diet, which was convoked for the 18th. Meanwhile Nicholas issued a proclamation, in which he declared that no concessions could be made to the rebels; and, on the 24th, another addressed to the Russians, telling them that the Poles had dared to propose conditions to their legitimate master: "God," he adds, "is with us; and in a single battle we shall be able to reduce to submission these disturbers of the peace." January 24, the Polish diet, which had been opened on the 18th of December, declared the absolute independence of Poland, and the termination of the Russian dominion; and on the 25th, that the Polish throne was vacant. Although the immediate cause of this revolution was the severe punishment inflicted on the pupils of the military academy, there is no doubt that the Poles were encouraged to make the attempt by the success that had attended the Parisians in the preceding July. The object of the Polish revolutionists, however, was not to withdraw themselves entirely from the authority of the Russian emperor, but only to maintain the privileges that were guaranteed to them at the con. gress of Vienna, and to get rid of the tyrannous viceroyship of the grandduke Constantine. They had now, however, drawn the sword; and al though two commissioners were sent to St. Petersburg to endeavour to effect an arrangement, the emperor refused to listen to them, and denounced the revolted Poles as traitors to whom no lenity would be shown.

Marshal Diebitsch, who had so successfully conducted the war with the Turks, entered Poland at the head of a large army. He advanced as far as the city of Warsaw, and was victorious over the Poles near the walls of

cannon.

'heir capital, February 25, 1831 (the loss of the Poles 1 stated to have been 5,500, that of their enemies 4,500; but when Prince Radzivil resigned the command, on the 28th, and Skrzynecki, then only a colonel, was appointed in his place, the Polish cause gained strength. This brave officer, though finally unsuccessful, like the heroic Kosciusko, proved that he deserved a better fate. March 31, he was victorious over the Russians in a night attack. He advanced cautiously, and, favoured by the darkness of the night, reached their cantonments without being perceived. The advanced guard of General Geismar, consisting of eight or ten thousand men, was first attacked, and almost wholly destroyed; the Poles took four thousand prisoners and one thousand six hundred pieces of cannon. Immediately afterwards, he attacked General Rosen, who was posted with twenty thousand men at Dembe Wielski, and obliged him to retreat, with the loss of two thousand prisoners and nine pieces of Another important victory was gained near Zelechow, when twelve thousand Russians were killed, wounded, or taken, with twelve pieces or cannon. During this action, the Lithuanians and Volhynians, who served in the Russian army, turned their arms against the Russians, and materially contributed to the success of the Poles. The peasants in vurious quarters of Poland now took an active part in the war, and hastened, with whatever weapons they could obtain, to the army. Insurrections broke out in Lithuania, Volhynia, Kowno, Ukraine, Wilna, and even in ancient Poland, as far as Smolensk. On the other hand, General Dwernicki, who had been sent to make a demonstration in the rear of the Russians, and who had been victorious over them, was at last compelled to pass into the Austrian dominions, where he surrendered to the authori ties of that country, April 27, with 5000 Poles. The ardour of the people, however, still continued, and hopes were entertained in every country that the manly resistance of the Poles would induce powerful cabinets to interfere; but, unfortunately, Prussia and Austria, being in possession of a part of the spoils of Poland, did all in their power to prevent interference, while Britain and France were too much occupied at home to render essential aid. The military operations were now prosecuted with new vigour, and the emperor, who, in a manifesto addressed to the Russians, bad called them the legitimate masters of the Poles, was ready to make every sacrifice to regain the Polish throne. Their fate was soon decided. After two days fighting, Warsaw was taken by the Russians, September, 1831); the confiscation of their property and exile to Siberia followed as a matter of course; and though many found an asylum in England, and other countries, they were mostly in extreme poverty, and dependent on the benevolence of those who pitied their hard fate while they admired their patriotism. Poland was soon afterwards incorporated with Russia; and although it has its separate diet and code of laws, Russian troops are stationed in all the principal towns, and it bears every semblance in other respects to a conquered country.

THE HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND.

FROM the earliest times this country has been no less celebrated for the spirit of freedom which animated the inhabitants, than for the beautiful and interesting character of its scenery Snow-capped mountains, with

fertile vallies and peaceful lakes at their base, are here seen in contrast with noble forests, luxuriant vineyards, and glaciers of almost boundless extent, whose crystal pinnacles tower above each other and flash their light with all the brilliancy of a noon-day sun. But, in alluding to the geographical features of Switzerland, we must not forget that our present business is more particularly devoted to its history.

The northern and southern nations of Europe have been singularly intermingled in the history of Helvetia, whose Alpine walls seem like a barrier, separating them from each other. The Roman legions, indeed, conquered the Gauls, Rhætians and Alemanni, in the forests and marshes; but they could not destroy the northern spirit of freedom. The traces of its ancient subjugation to Rome are still visible in the Romanic language of a part of Switzerland. Helvetia, under the Romans, had a flourishing trade, which covered the land with cities and villages; and Switzerland still forms the connecting link between Northern Germany, the Netherlands and France on the one side, and Italy on the other. Before the fall of the Roman empire in the west, the northern and largest part of Switzerland, occupied by the Alemanni, had been conquered by the Franks. On the Jura dwelt the Burgundians, and Rhætia was under the Ostrogoths. Three German nations, therefore, freed the country, about A. D. 450, from the dominion of Rome.

Christianity had already been introduced into Helvetia from Italy, and as early as the fourth century there were Christian churches at Geneva, Coire, and other places. The Alemanni and Burgundians gave their laws and their habits to the Helvetians; and the Alemanni occupied the greater part of the country. Each soldier received a farm; a judge, or centgrave, was set over one hundred of these farms (forming a cent, or hundred); and the place of judgment, where he settled all questions between the free citizens, was called Malluo. Several cents formed a Gan (hence Thurgan, Aargan, &c.), the judge of which was styled count (graf); and the counts were under a duke. The great irruption of barbarians swept through the peaceful vallies of the Alps, and Roman civilization disappeared. Ostrogoths, Lombards, and even Huns, settled in different parts of the country. At last, the French, who had taken possession of the lands of the conquered Alemanni, drove the Ostrogoths over the Rhætiau mountains.

In 534, they likewise subjected the Burgundians; and all Switzerland became a portion of the Frankish empire. The country, however, retained its ancient constitution; the Romans and old inhabitants were governed by Roman, the Alemanni by Alemanic laws; and each of the other nations by its peculiar code. The Christian religion was restored anew and the desolated fields were again brought under cultivation. On the partition of the empire of the Franks among the Merovingians, Switzerland was divided between two sovereigns; one reigned over Alemannian, and the other over Burgundian Switzerland, or Little Burgundy. Pepin reunited the whole country, and Charlemagne encouraged the arts and sciences in Helvetia. Under his feeble successors, the counts became more and more independent of the royal authority, and finally made the possession of their gans hereditary. One of them (Rodolph) established, in 888, the new kingdom of Burgundy, between the Reuss and the Jura. Nine years previously, Boso had established the kingdom of Arles, in the territory between the Jura and the Rhone. Thirty years afterwards, the two Burgundian kingdoms were united. The counts in the other part of Switzerland were still nominally subject to German kings; but they conducted themselves as princes, assumed the name of their castles, and compelled the free inhabitants of their gans to acknowledge them as their lords. Hence arose a multitude of independent and complicated govern. ments, whose chiefs were engaged in continual feuds with each other