called general, the reunited Eastern Church being no longer represented in it. The fathers of Basle, who had deposed Eugenius, were declared heretical, as well as Felix V., who was declared to be a schismatic antipope. After several other decrees the Council of Florence was closed in April, 1442. The French and other divines do not recognise the authority of the Council of Florence, which however is fully acknowledged at Rome. The same may be said of the following:Lateran, the Fifth Council of, was convoked by Pope Julius II., in 1512, to oppose the acts of the pretended council of Pisa, when a certain number of prelates hostile to Julius had assembled under the influence of the king of France, then at variance with the pope. After declaring all the acts of Pisa null and void, and summoning the French prelates to appear at Rome, Pope Julius died in February, 1513, but his successor, Leo X., continued the council, and Louis XII., giving up the "Conciliabulum" of Pisa, sent in his adhesion to the council of Lateran. The French prelates, however, did not attend, under various excuses. The council continued assembled till March, 1517. It chiefly concerned itself with matters of discipline. Among others, it established a general ecclesiastical censorship on all printed books, under pain of excommunication. [CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS.] It confirmed the concordat made at Bologna between Pope Leo and Francis L., concerning the sees and benefices of France, and annulled the previous pragmatic sanction promulgated by King Charles VII., conformably to the decrees of the councils of Constance and Basle. The concordat took away from the chapters the right of electing to vacant sees, and gave the nomination to the king, subject to the papal sanction and ordination.

Trent, the Council of, is the last oecumenic council of the Latin church, and is acknowledged as such by the Roman Catholic world, although some of its decrees in matters of discipline are not sanctioned by the laws of many states. [TRENT, COUNCIL OF.]

The principal collections of the acts of the councils are: Labbé and Cossart, Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima Collectio,' with additions by Coleti and Mansi, 31 vols. fol., Florence and Venice, 1759-98; Concilia generalia Ecclesia Catholicæ Pauli V. Pont. Max. auctoritate edita,' 4 vols. fol. Rome, 1628; 'Concilia Generalia,' edita a T. Merlino, 2 vols. fol., Cologne, 1530; Concilia Omnia, tam generalia quam particularia,' a Petro Crabbe, 2 vols. fol., Cologne, 1538-40; Collectio Regia maxima Conciliorum, seu Acta Conciliorum et Epistolæ Decretales, ac Constitutiones Summorum Pontificum ab anno Christi 34 ad 1714, studio Joh. Harduini, Soć. Jesu; cum novis indicibus,' 12 vols. fol., Paris, 1714-15. There are also collections of national councils: 'Collectio Conciliorum Hispaniæ, diligentia Garsia Loaisa elaborata,' fol., Madrid, 1593; 'Concilia Magnæ Britanniæ et Hibernia a Synodo Verolamiensi, A.D. 446 ad Londinense, A.D. 1717, a D. Wilkins collecta,' 4 vols. fol., 1737; Sacra Concilia Ecclesiæ Romano-Catholica in Regno Hungariæ celebrata, ab anno 1016 ad 1734,' fol., Vienna, 1742; Concilia antiqua Galliæ, cum Epistolis Pontificum, Principum Constitutionibus, et aliis Gallicana rei Ecclesiasticæ monimentis, Opera et Studio T. Sirmondi,' 3 vols. fol., Paris, 1629; 'Collectio maxima Conciliorum omnium Hispania et novi Orbis, cura et studio Jos. Saenz de Aguirre, editio altera novis additionibus aucta a Jos. Catalano, cum indicibus,' 6 vols. fol., Rome, 1753; Conciles de Toulouse, Béziers, et Narbonne, ensemble les ordonnances du Comte Raimond contre les Albigeois, par Arnaud Sorbin, D.D.,' 8vo., Paris, 1569; Atti dell'assemblea degli Arcivescovi e Vescovi della Toscana tenuta in Firenze, l'anno 1787, 4to., Firenze, 1787; Atti e decreti del Concilio Diocesano di Pistoja dell' anno 1786, 4to. Firenze, 1788; Salmon, Traité de l'etude des Conciles et de leurs Collections,' Paris, 1724.

Some of the old Spanish councils are very important, such as the Council of Iliberis, 303, which concerned itself chiefly with the morals of the faithful, exposed as they were to the bad example of their heathen countrymen. Its canons, to the number of eighty, have come down to us, which is not the case with most of the previous councils. Several of the councils of Toledo are also very important for the elucidation of Church history and controversy, especially on questions of discipline.

The Greek or Eastern Church, since its separation from Rome, has held its own general councils or synods under the presidency of the œcumenic patriarchs of Constantinople. [GREEK CHURCH; RUSSIAN CHURCH.]

The Protestant and Reformed Churches have also held their councils or synods, such as DORT, SYNOD OF. The Synod of Emden, in 1571, and that of Sandomir, for the Protestant churches of Poland; the general assemblies of the Scottish Church, and the convocations of the Church of England, are also a sort of national councils; but the Protestants in general do not admit the divine inspiration and consequent infallibility of the councils, whether general or national, though they acknowledge the doctrines propounded by the first two accumenic councils of Nice and Constantinople.

COUNCILLORS. [CORPORATIONS; MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS.] COUNSEL, an abbreviation of counsellor, by which in England is understood a barrister. The phrase includes, of course, serjeants, Queen's counsel, and by courtesy comprehends those who, having kept twelve terms at one of the inns of court, have been permitted to practise under the bar. [BARRISTER.] The word has no plural number, and is used to denote either one or more counsel. The duty of

counsel is to give advice in questions of law, and to manage causes for clients. They are styled common law, equity, or chamber counsel, according to the nature of the business they transact. They are supposed to plead gratuitously. [ADVOCATE.] In the words of Mr. Justice Bayley, 1 Chit. R. 351, "they are to be paid beforehand, because they are not to be left to the chance whether they shall ultimately get their fees or not, and it is for the purpose of promoting the honour and integrity of the bar that it is expected all their fees should be paid when their briefs are delivered. That is the reason why they are not permitted to maintain an action for their fees." Counsel may be retained generally, that is, to advocate any cause in which the retaining party may be engaged, or specially with reference to a pending cause; and generally speaking, it is not optional for counsel to refuse a retainer; there are certain rules, however, by which their practice is regulated.

Counsel in a cause have the privilege of enforcing anything which is contained in their instructions and is pertinent to the matter in question, and are not bound to inquire whether it be true or false; they are also at liberty to make fair comments on the evidence adduced. Formerly, in cases of felony, counsel for the prisoner were not allowed to address the jury on his behalf; they might, however, examine and cross-examine the witnesses, and argue points of law; but now by stat. 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 114, all persons tried for felony may make full answer and defence by counsel.

Counsel are punishable by stat. West. 1. 3 Ed. I., c. 28, for deceit or collusion, and, it is said, are so far under the jurisdiction of the judges, that in the event of malpractice they may be prohibited from addressing the court. They are certainly bound by the rules established by each court for the regulation of its own practice; and for professional or other misconduct may be disbarred by the inn of court to which they belong (Blackst. ' Comm.,' Mr. Kerr's ed., v. iii. p. 28.)

COUNT, through the French word comte, from the Latin comes, comitis, meaning companion. Considered in its original acceptation, this word might be translated by assessor, an officer who, during the Roman republic, was given as an assistant to the proconsuls or the proprætors sent out to govern the provinces. Cicero speaks of these comites in several passages of his works. Dion Cassius states that Augustus Cæsar called by that name all the officers of his imperial household. These comites pronounced judgment on all matters referred to them by the emperor, and their judgments had the same authority as the Senatus Consulta. The council of state instituted by Napoleon I. gives a very exact idea of the constitution of that court tribunal. Like the council of state, the latter was invested with judicial, legislative, and executive power. The emperors of the East followed the example of those of the West, with this difference only, that the comites created by Augustus and his successors were the counsellors of the emperor, and the title belonged to the office and not to the person; whilst at the court of Constantinople it was quite the contrary. The nomenclature of these counts fills a considerable place in the Glossary of Ducange. The comes marcarum, counts of the frontiers, which were formerly called marches (a denomination still in use in the papal states), took subsequently the title of marquis; an innovation which raised long and serious discussions among the learned in feudal right and court etiquette.

Under the first two races of the Frank kings, the counts were, as under the lower empire, officers of various degrees. The count of the palace was the first dignity in the state, after the maire of the palace. He presided in the court royal when the prince was absent, and possessed sovereign jurisdiction. He also exercised a great influence in the nomination of the king's delegates, who, under the title of counts, administered the provinces. A count had the government of a small district, often limited to a town and its dependencies. He was at the same time a judge, a civil administrator, and a military commander. In case of war, he led in person the contingent of his county to the army. The learned Dutillet, in his 'Recueil des Rois de France, de leur Couronne, et Maison,' &c., expatiates on the functions of ancient counts. With the progress of time, the counts, as well as the other officers appointed to govern the provinces, the towns, and the frontiers, succeeded in rendering their places hereditary, and in making themselves sovereign masters of the districts of which they had only been created removeable and revocable administrators. At first they contented themselves with securing the reversion to their sons, then to their collateral heirs, and finally they declared those places hereditary for ever, under Hugh Capet, the son of Robert, count of Paris, who himself only obtained the throne partly in consequence of that concession. It was feudalism that introduced inheritance instead of election as a permanent rule in political successions. The supreme chief of the ancient Franks, koning (Lat. rex), was a magistrate, and as a magistrate he was elected, although always from the same family. The inferior chiefs, heri-zoghe, graven, rakhen-burghe* (Lat. duces, comites, judices), were also elected.

The term "count" is now become in France a mere title, conferring no political importance. In the papal states, as well as in those of *Heri-zoghe, in its proper acceptation, means leader of an army, from the word heer, army, and the verb ziehen, to lead. Grave, graf, gheref, means, in

all the Germanic dialects, the authority of a secondary magistrate. Rakhenburghe means notable persons; they are employed as judges and guardians of public order.

remain as in the first example, while the latter, transposed a tenth lower, is adopted as a base, as in Ex. 2; and thus is formed a composition in three parts.

The study of Counterpoint is necessary as part of the education of a good musician, though now much neglected; it has, nevertheless, been sometimes carried to such a length as to become pure pedantry. For the principal rules of Counterpoint,-and also for some brief remarks on the question, "whether the art of writing in parts," was understood by the ancients, see HARMONY.

COUNTERPOISE is, generally, a mass of brass or iron so disposed as to keep a part of some instrument or machine in equilibrio.

The instruments employed in practical astronomy are generally mounted so that their centres of gravity are supported, in which case they require no counterpoise; but a reflecting circle, for example, when placed in any position except one which is horizontal, has its centre of gravity on one side of the pillar which supports it; and a mass of brass, so connected with the axis of the circle as to be always on the side of the pillar which is opposite the latter, serves the purpose of keeping the instrument steady.

A transit instrument, or a mural circle of considerable magnitude and weight, whose pivots would press heavily on their supports, is sometimes provided with counterpoises, one for each point which is to be relieved; this is applied at one end of a lever which is supported by the pillar or stand of the instrument, the other end being connected, near the pivot, with the axle; and thus the pressure is diminished or wholly removed.

A bridge which is capable of being turned on horizontal joints at one of its extremities [DRAWBRIDGE] usually has its weight relieved, or almost wholly removed, by a counterpoise, so that the machinery employed to raise it has little except the resistance arising from friction to overcome. The counterpoise is at one extremity of a chain, which passes over a pulley at the top of a pillar, and is attached at the other extremity to some part of the bridge.

Now, since a drawbridge, in being raised or lowered, exerts on the suspending chains a strain which increases as the bridge declines more

ARTS AND SCI. DIV. VOL. III,

from a vertical position, it is necessary, in order that this strain may be always in equilibrio with the constant weight serving as a counterpoise, that the latter should move on a surface whose figure is determined consistently with that condition. The rules for the resolution of forces give expressions for the strains to which the two parts of the chain are subject in the directions of their lengths; and, making these equal to one another, there is obtained an equation which may be shown to be that of an epitrochoid; such, consequently, is the figure which should be given to the surface on which the counterpoise is to slide. It should be observed that, in the investigation, the effective weight of the drawbridge is not its absolute weight (acting at the centre of gravity); but is equal to this latter weight diminished in the inverse ratio of the distances of the fulcrum, or joint, from the centre of gravity and from the point at which the chain is attached to the bridge, generally the opposite extremity of the latter.

If the pulley over which the chain passes is close to the elevated extremity of the bridge when the latter is in a vertical position, the length of the chain will, of course, be equal to the diagonal of a square of which the length of the bridge is one side; then, a circle whose centre corresponds to the joint of the drawbridge, and whose radius is the whole length of the chain, being supposed to revolve on the circumference of a fixed circle of equal radius; a point supposed to be on the produced radius of the revolving circle, or epicycle, at a distance from its centre equal to the difference between twice the length of the radius, or chain, and the length of the bridge will, by revolving with the epicycle, describe the required curve.

The great telescope of Lord Rosse, at Parsonstown, Ireland, turns upon a joint at its lower extremity; and, being intended to decline from a vertical position both towards the north and the south, it is provided with two counterpoises, in order to facilitate its elevation or depression. One of these weights is on a chain which is attached, at one extremity, to a point near the object end of the telescope, and, at the other, to a fixed point at the top of the wall; this point being so situated that, in elevating the telescope, the weight descends, and describes, by its gravity, a circular arc coinciding nearly with the

U

proper epitrochoid. The other weight is at the end of a lever projecting horizontally, from the lower extremity of the telescope, when the latter is in a vertical position; and then, consequently, it acts with the greatest power; its action diminishes, by the lever being elevated or depressed, as the telescope declines from the vertical towards the north or south. COUNTERSCARP, is that side of the ditch, about a fortress, which is opposite to the ramparts. The part which is in front of the salient angle of a work is in the form (on the plan) of a circular are having the vertex of that angle as a centre; and, if the ditch be that of an outwork, the direction of the counterscarp is generally parallel to the rampart; the counterscarp of the main ditch is in the direction of a line which is a tangent drawn to the arc from the shoulder of the collateral bastion. [See the lines above FG, GE, fig. 1. BASTION.] This is intended, since the length of the flank is greater than the breadth of the ditch at the said angle, to allow the whole fire of the flank to be directed along the main ditch; and Cormontaingne suggests that the tangent should be drawn from the interior side of the parapet at the shoulder angle, in order that the fire of the man stationed there may more accurately graze the wall of the counterscarp.

In most systems of fortification the counterscarp is retained by a vertical wall of masonry, similar to that of the escarp [ESCARP], in order to render the descent of the enemy into the ditch a difficult operation, requiring mining or other operation to destroy the wall, and thereby entailing delay the defence of the covered way is also thereby prolonged, since the enemy who may have entered it at one place is unable to spread along it on account of the traverses which are constructed across it. Carnot, however, recommends that the counterscarp side of the ditch should be formed in a gentle slope rising from the bottom to the level of the natural ground, in order that the garrison may with facility make those great sorties which he considers as one of the most powerful means of defence. COUNTERVALLATION, a chain of redoubts executed about a fortress in order to prevent the sorties of the garrison: the works are generally unconnected with each other, but sometimes they are united by a continuous line of parapet. It has happened, during the continuance of a siege or blockade, that the investing corps has been menaced by an army coming up to relieve the fortress; in which case, when it is intended to act on the defensive without abandoning the siege, a chain of redoubts is constructed to strengthen that corps on the exterior: this is called a circumvallation; and originally, like the interior chain, it entirely surrounded the fortress.

According to Thucydides, the town of Platea, when besieged by the Lacedæmonians, was surrounded by a line of palisades to prevent the egress of the garrison; and subsequently a circumvallation was added. At the siege of Alesia, the countervallation executed by Cæsar consisted of a rampart of earth, 12 feet high, which was surmounted by a parapet, probably of stakes, and by turrets, at the distance of 80 feet from each other. A triple ditch was formed between this line and the town. The Roman army was encamped beyond the line, and enclosed by a circunvallation of similar form; the latter was 14 miles in circumference. It is related in the continuation of the history written by William of Tyre, that, at the siege of Acre by Richard I. of England, the defenders made a sortie, and having forced the agger, began to plunder the camp; and it is added, that Saladin, being in the neighbourhood with an army, made a night attack on the lines: these circumstances sufficiently indicate that both countervallations and circumvallations were then in use.

The long duration of ancient sieges rendered such works indispensable; but the use of artillery having greatly abridged the time to which the defence of a fortified place can be extended, they have become of less importance, and, in fact, it is only when the garrison is strong and the quarters of the besieging ariny are separated by the obstacles of the ground, that any works are considered necessary; and, in this case, instead of continuous lines of palisades and high towers of wood, a few simple redoubts and breast-works of earth are constructed at intervals. In general, the besiegers are protected by an army of observation in the field, when any effort on the part of the enemy to raise the siege is apprehended.

The siege of Sebastopol may seem at first sight to contradict the statement of works of circumvallation being little used in modern sieges, for there numerous and powerful works were thrown up to protect the besiegers' army from the attacks of the besieged, and indeed the want of them was felt at Inkermann; but it must be remembered that this could hardly be termed a siege in the strict sense of the word, but rather the attempt of one army to dislodge another equally powerful and, at times, more numerous opponent, from a strongly fortified position with supplies and matériel of every description close at hand. In consequence of which, and of the noninvestment of the place, while the whole disposable force of the allies was occupied in carrying on the attack, works were necessary to protect their flanks and rear from the sudden sorties of the disposable Russian forces on any weak and unguarded points.

COUNTY. [SHIRE.]

COUNTY COURTS. The whole jurisdiction in civil causes of the old schyremote, or County Court, has been transferred to the new County Courts, first established for the recovery of claims not exceed

ing 201. in amount, in 1846, but whose jurisdiction has since been considerably extended. These tribunals were intended, not only to bring justice to every man's door, but also to supply the place of a great variety of inferior courts, established in different localities by as many different Acts of Parliament, obtained for that purpose. These Courts of Requests, or Courts of Conscience, as they were called, were intended solely for the recovery of small debts, and were consequently abolished when the new County Courts were established.

The County Court may entertain suits for the recovery of all debts, damages, and demands, legacies, and balances of partnership accounts, where the sum sued for does not exceed 501. If the parties consent in writing, claims to any amount may be determined; but the court has no jurisdiction (unless the parties consent in writing) in any action in which the title to real property or in which the validity of any bequest under a will or settlement, may come in question; nor in any action for a malicious prosecution, for libel or slander, or seduction. The crown may sue in this court for duties and penalties not exceeding one hundred pounds, the judgment in such cases being final. An action again may be brought in it against a custom-house officer, in respect of any illegal seizure of vessels or goods, where the damages do not exceed fifty pounds; but in this case there is an appeal, as in an ordinary action (16 & 17 Vict. c. 107). Questions between the crown and any party liable for Succession Duties (not exceeding fifty pounds) may also be determined in this court; the decision of the judge in such cases also being final (16 & 17 Vict. c. 51).

The County Courts are essentially local courts, for to give jurisdiction the defendant must reside within the district of the court, at the time of the action being brought. By leave of the court an action may be brought where the cause thereof arose within its district, in cases in which the defendant has dwelt or carried on business in such district within six months. The court has also jurisdiction to give a landlord possession of premises of which the rent does not exceed 50%, and no fine has been paid, where the tenant's term has determined, or he has received notice to quit, orwhere the rent is half a year in arrear. Its jurisdiction in testamentary matters is explained elsewhere. [PROBATE.] The County Court has an exclusive jurisdiction in determining the claims and disputes of the members and officers of Friendly Societies, Industrial and Provident Societies, and of Literary and Scientific Institutions (18 & 19 Vict. c. 63, s. 41; 15 & 16 Vict. c. 31, s. 8, the Literary and Scientific Institutions Act, 1854), and in the appointment of trustees to, and the regulation of, all charities within the district of the court, of which the gross annual revenue does not exceed 301. [CHARITIES.]

A suit is begun by the entry of a plaint at the office of the court, which sets out the names of the plaintiff and defendant, and the nature of the action. Thereupon a summons is issued, a copy of which is served on the defendant by one of the bailiffs of the court, requiring the defendant to appear; which he must do at the court to which he is summoned, or have judgment given against him. If defence is made, the matter in dispute is, on the trial, inquired into, and disposed of summarily by the judge; who is to decide all questions, as well of fact as of law, unless one or other of the parties has demanded a jury for the trial of matters of fact: for in actions for sums above 5l., a jury of five may be obtained as of right; in this case the facts are to be tried by the jury.

In actions for more than 20%., an appeal lies to either of the superior courts of law at Westminster, against the decision of the judge in matter of law, or in the reception or rejection of evidence. No appeal lies against his decision in matters of fact.

The court, which is held once a month, is a court of record. On its judgment execution may be issued against the goods of the unsuc cessful party. If he has no goods, but has the means of paying, and refuses to do so, he may be punished, after inquiry into his circumstances, by imprisonment for a period not exceeding forty days; or the judgment (if for more than 201.) may be removed into one of the superior courts, and enforced there by the ordinary process of execution.

To encourage suitors to resort to this court, the plaintiff in the superior courts (in suits in which they have concurrent jurisdiction) does not in general obtain costs in actions of contract where he recovers less than 20., and in actions of tort where he recovers no more than 57., unless the judge who tries the cause certifies for costs, or it appears that there was sufficient reason for bringing the action in the superior court.

Previously to the establishment of the County Courts, the Courts of Bankruptcy had, under the Protection Acts,' jurisdiction to grant to any person who was a trader owing less than 3007. in all, or who was not a trader within the bankrupt laws, protection from all process. This jurisdiction was, by the statute 10 & 11 Vict. c. 102, vested in the County Court, and the Court for the Relief of Insolvent Debtors, in London. [PROTECTION ACTS.] In the County Court, also, may now be tried all actions of replevin. [REPLEVIN.] The judge has also power to grant a warrant for the arrest of an absconding debtor, and by statute 17 & 18 Vict. c. 104, to direct a vessel which has caused injury by collision or otherwise to another vessel to be detained until satisfaction is made for the injury, or security given to abide the event of legal proceedings.

The nature and jurisdiction of this court have been described thus fully, in consequence not only of the recent erection of these tribunals, but of the extent and variety of the powers vested in them, and the important position they have taken in the estimation of the people. (Blackstone's Commentaries,' Dr. Kerr's edit., vol. viii., p. 38.) COUNTY RATE. County rates are taxes levied for the purpose of defraying the expenses to which counties are liable. They are levied either under the authority of acts of parliament, or on the principle that as duties are imposed upon a county there must be a power to raise the money for the costs incurred in the performance of such duties.

The ancient purposes of the county rate "were to provide for the maintenance of the county courts, for the expenses incidental to the county police, and the civil and military government of the county; for the payment of common judicial fines; for the maintenance of places of defence (sometimes, however, provided by a separate tax common to counties and to other districts, called burgbote), prisons, gaols, bridges (when these were not provided for by a separate tax common to counties and to other districts, called brukbote), and occasionally high roads, rivers, and watercourses, and for the payment of the wages of the knights of the shire. Additions to these purposes, some occasional and some permanent, were made from time to time by statutes. The king's aids, taxes, and subsidies were usually first imposed on the county, and collected as if they had been county taxes. But the first statute defining any of its present purposes (though now repealed as to the mode it prescribes for imposing the tax) was passed in the 22 Henry VIII. From that time up to the present new purposes have constantly been added, and new and distinct rates were constantly created for purposes of comparatively little importance, and to raise sums of money quite insignificant in amount." (Report on Local Taxation,' by the Poor Law Commissioners.) The assessment and collection of separate county rates was not only very inconvenient and troublesome, but so expensive that the charge of collection and assessment frequently exceeded the sum rated. For remedying this evil the 12 Geo. II. c. 29, was passed, whereby justices of the peace at general or quarter sessions were enabled to make a general rate to answer the purpose of the distinct rates previously leviable under various acts of parliament for the purposes of bridges, gaols, prisons, and houses of correction, such rate to be assessed upon every town, parish, and place within the county, to be collected by the churchwardens and overseers, along with the poor rates of every parish, and paid over to the high constable of hundreds, by them to treasurers appointed by the justices, and again by them to whomsoever the justices should direct.

Various acts amending the above statute were passed, but the whole law was consolidated, and the former statutes repealed, by the 15 & 16 Vict. c. 81. Under that statute, courts of quarter sessions appoint a committee of justices for the purpose of preparing and altering from time to time, a basis or standard for fair and equal county rates, founded on the value of property rateable to the relief of the poor, returns for that purpose being laid before the committee by overseers and other parish officers. The basis, being approved by the committee, is laid before the court of quarter sessions, who, after public notice, may confirm it with or without amendment, or refer it back to the committee. Overseers have a right of appeal against the basis on the ground of inequality. The basis being settled, the court of quarter sessions from time to time directs a county rate to be made according to this basis, for all the purposes to which such rate is made liable by law, expressing the amount on each parish, and against this rate parishes and individuals may appeal. The rate is collected by the overseers under precepts sent by the justices to the guardians of every union, or to the high constable of a hundred, and the amount is paid over to the county treasurer (or by the 21 & 22 Vict. c. 33, to the divisional treasurer), who is required to publish an annual abstract of his receipts and expenditure. This act extends to all places having separate commissions of the peace, and to all rates of the nature of county rates. Rates in the nature of county rates in boroughs are provided for by the Municipal Corporations Act (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76, as amended by subsequent statutes), and in boroughs not within the provisions of the Municipal Corporations Act, the rate is provided for | by the 17 & 18 Vict., c. 71. It is to be observed that the police rate, although collected with the county rate, is made a distinct rate. (3 & 4 Vict., c. 88; 19 & 20 Vict. c. 69.)

The county rate is levied on the same description of property as the poors' rate, that is, on lands, houses, tithes impropriate, propriations of tithes, coal-mines, and saleable underwoods: the term "lands" includes improvements of lands, by roads, bridges, docks, canals, and other works and erections not included under the term "houses." Under houses are comprehended all permanent erections for the shelter of man, beast, or property. Mines, other than coal-mines, are exempted, and the exemption extends to limestone and other stone quarries, or to other matter that is obtained by quarrying. The county rate is to be assessed upon parishes "rateably and equally according to a certain pound rate," upon the basis or standard above mentioned," of the full and fair annual value of the property, messuages, lands, tenements, and hereditaments, rateable to the relief of the poor."

COUPLING, in machinery, is, in a limited sense, the name given to

various contrivances for effecting the longitudinal connection of shafts; though, in a more general sense, it may be extended to embrace the arrangements by which the parts of a machine may be connected or disconnected at pleasure, or by which a machine may be disengaged from, or re-engaged with, a revolving wheel or shaft, through which it receives motion from a steam-engine, water-wheel, or other prime

mover.

When it is required to communicate motion to a considerable distance from the source of power, as in the distribution of power to the various apartments of a cotton-mill, by gearing such as that represented under WHEELS, it is frequently necessary to construct the long shafts by which the motion is distributed in several pieces, not only owing to the impossibility of making them accurately of the required length, but also because, if they were so made, their expansion and contraction would occasion much inconvenience. It is further desirable, in many cases, to have the option of detaching one portion of a shaft from the moving power without stopping the adjacent portion.

In such cases, each distinct shaft, or portion of shaft, may be perfectly supported by bearings of its own, near each end; or, under certain circumstances, the coupling may be so constructed as to render one of the bearings unnecessary.

The simplest mode of connecting shafts which are supported by bearings near each end, is to make that portion of each shaft which projects beyond the bearings of a square shape, and to unite the adjacent ends by means of a coupling-box, which may be described as a square collar fitting the ends of the shafts, and capable of sliding along them in such a way that it will either embrace the ends of both shafts, in which case they must turn together like one piece, or that, when it is required to disconnect them, it may be slid fully on to one of the shafts, leaving the other entirely free. Holes are provided in both the coupling-box and the shaft, by which a pin may be inserted to hold the coupling-box in whichever position it may be required to retain. Sometimes, instead of the coupling-box being in the form of a sliding box or collar, it is formed in two halves, which may be separated at pleasure, and secured, when put together, by bolts or keys. On account of the greater facility of making them perfectly true, round couplings and coupling-boxes are occasionally used; but as their efficiency in transmitting power depends wholly upon the connecting pins, of which there should be two, passing completely through the shaft at right angles with each other, they are not so strong as square couplings.

Couplings are often effected without coupling-boxes, by the use of what are termed clutches or glands, in which projections of various forms from arms or discs attached to the ends of the shafts, are employed to lock them together, in some cases only while the machinery is in motion; while, by the removal of one of the engaging members, by sliding it back upon the shaft, the connection may be broken at pleasure. Such contrivances admit of infinite variety, and may be made to disengage themselves whenever the moving power ceases, by fixing one of the engaging members upon a pivot in such a manner that, when the pressure upon it is relaxed, it falls out of the way. This is especially the case with such clutches as act on the principle of the ratchet and click. Fig. 1 represents a clutch with pro Fig. 1.

jecting arms, which engage with each other by mere contact, and will turn in either direction. As the engaging members of this clutch are not attached to each other, it affords scope for expansion and contraction without occasioning the straining and injury which might be occasioned by a more rigid connection; and it also obviates the difficulty of throwing all the machinery into motion at the same moment, since one shaft may have to turn nearly half round before it has to impel the adjoining one. Sometimes, however, a similar coupling is so constructed that the connection is made by pins passing through the two arms. In some couplings the arms or glands are single, so that the connection may be compared to a common crank, instead of being double, and forming a double crank, as in fig. 1; and when it is desired to prevent the machinery from turning the wrong way, the arms may be jointed with a kind of hinge-joint, similar to that of a common two-foot rule, which will cause the bar to be quite stiff to resist a strain in one direction, although, if the motion be reversed, the joint will give way, and the connection will be broken.

When each length of shaft has only one bearing, the coupling must be of such a construction as not merely to compel one shaft to turn with the other, but also to cause the supported end of one shaft to sustain, by a scarfed or mortice and tenon joint, or by some similar contrivance, the unsupported end of the adjoining shaft.