"in all its parts, it exhibits the result of almost every operation of his workshop." To make this article a piece of sheet copper is taken, rather longer than the intended circumference of the kettle, and some inches wider than its depth. The surface of this piece of copper, for about an inch at each end, is then brightened by filing, and one end is cut into to the depth of about an inch, and at intervals of about an inch, with a pair of shears. Every alternate portion of the cut edge is then turned a little back, so that when the plate is bent round into a cylindrical shape, the uncut end may be laid between the alternate tongues or portions of the cut edge, and embraced, as it were, by them. A mixture of borax and solder is then applied to the joint, which is, after soldering. hammered upon a steel mandril or stake, until the seam becomes smooth, and is beaten down to the thickness of the adjoining portions of the plate. A perfect cylinder being thus formed, the next operation is to turn it inwards in a sloping direction for a space of about two inches, to form the top of the kettle, or that portion which extends from the shoulder at the top of the cylindrical side of the vessel to the edge of the opening to which the cover is fitted. This is done by hammering upon an anvil of suitable shape. About an inch of the lower end is then turned inward in the same way, and cut with the shears into tongues, which are bent back alternately in the same manner as those at the end of the plate had been. A piece of sheet copper cut to fit the end of the cylinder, so as to form the bottom of the kettle, is then inserted and united to the cylinder by the same process as that described for the first joint. The vessel is then pickled in diluted sulphuric acid, after which it is planished to brightness, the marks of the hammer being rendered imperceptible by the intervention of a piece of old moreen, or other woollen stuff, between the surface of the copper and the stake or anvil on which it is laid. The lid of the kettle is dished by stamping it in a die; the handle is cast; and the spout, after being soldered up and rounded a little on a mandril, is finally shaped upon lead with which it has been filled, and afterwards soldered or riveted into its place. Copper tea-urns and saucepans are formed by soldering and hammering in a similar manner, the former being in general finished with a beautiful colour, produced by the application of sulphate of copper or Roman vitriol, previous to the planishing or burnishing.

There are several different modes of forming copper piping out of sheet metal. In one of these, the edges of the sheet, which is curved round a mandril, are made to meet without overlapping, and united by hard solder; in a second, they overlap, and are united by soft solder; in a third they overlap, and are secured by rivets; in a fourth, the edges are folded together, one being bent outwards and the other brought over it and turned into the acute angle formed between the outside of the tube and the turned back edge, the whole being subsequently made close and firm by hammering; while in a fifth, both edges of the pipe are turned back and covered with a strip of sheet metal, the two edges of which are turned in like the outer edge of the joint last described. The bending of such pipes into curved forms, as for the spiral coil in the sugar-pan described above, is a curious operation. Any attempt to bend such a tube while empty would be certain to impair its shape, and would probably occasion its fracture. To obviate this difficulty the pipe is, before bending, filled with lead, or some soft metallic alloy which will melt at a temperature which will not injure the tube. Being thus filled, the pipe may be treated as a solid bar of metal, and safely bent into any required form by suitable machinery; and when the desired curvature is gained, sufficient heat is applied to cause the contained metal to melt and flow out of the pipe. A patent was taken out a few years ago, for a mode of using up old worn-out rollers, such as those employed in calico-printing. The cylinders are to be bored truly, rolled or drawn out to the form of tubing, and annealed.

The use of copper sheathing for ships, an application which occa sions a very large demand for this metal, is alluded to under SHIPBUILDING. The articles BRASS; BRONZE; and BELL-CASTING, treat of some of the most important manufactures of the alloys of copper. Of some of the minor articles of manufacture, in the composition of which copper forms a chief constituent, an account is given under BUTTON; and Cock.

We add a few words concerning the trade and statistics of copper. No effective attempt has ever been male to ascertain the actual productiveness of the mines in this country; and all that is hitherto known on the subject is derived from partial inquiries of individuals. By this means, however, a tolerably accurate account has been taken of the produce of the copper mines in Cornwall, reaching back to 1771, with the exception of a few intermediate years, the returns of which are wanting. Since 1821 similar accounts have been procured of the produce of other mines in the United Kingdom. The annual produce of the Cornish mines rose from about 3400 tons in 1771, to 5000 tons in 1800; 7000 tons in 1820; and 12,000 tons in 1835. Since the last named year the yield has not advanced in equal ratio. The total quantity of metallic copper obtained at the smelting works of England and Wales, was 14,000 tons in 1835; since which year there has been a steady increase.

The supply from South Australia is becoming important. It was in 1845 that twelve miners began operations at the Burra Burra coppermines in that colony; in the beginning of 1859 there were more than a thousand employed, supporting a population of five thousand persons.

This is irrespective of the copper contained in the articles of brass manufactured. The declared value of the copper and copper goods exported in 1858, was no less than 2,698,8367., averaging about 109s. per cwt. British India is the largest purchaser of these goods. COPPER-NICKEL. [NICKEL.]

COPPERAS. [IRON, Protosulphate of.]

COPPICE, a wood or plantation of various kinds of trees, which shoot up from the root when cut down, and which are periodically cut down before they acquire any considerable size. The most common trees planted or used for this purpose are the oak, the chestnut, the maple, the birch, the ash, and the willow. The hazel and the alder are also frequently planted in coppice, the former in dry and chalky soils, the latter in moist and marshy situations. Timber trees are generally allowed to grow in coppice, or more properly the coppice is the underwood where the timber is the principal object. There is a doubt, however, whether it is judicious to allow many trees to stand where there is a ready sale for coppice wood. The quick return of the latter overbalances the greater price of old timber. In consequence of this opinion, large trees fit for ship-building, which require a long time to arrive at the required size, are becoming scarce; and many woods, once thickly studded with majestic trees, are reduced to mere coppice wood. The value of a well-managed coppice is considerable where the produce can be readily manufactured into useful articles, and carried to a good market. Ash hoops, hop-poles, chestnut gatehurdles, and sheep-hurdles are the principal articles manufactured or prepared in a newly-cut coppice. What is of no use for these purposes is made into faggots for fuel, where this is scarce, or converted into charcoal, which is more easily transported. A good coppice will bear to be cut down every eight or nine years, and will thus be worth, according to situation, from 6l. to 157., per acre, or even more, when sold to those who undertake to cut and prepare the wood.

Little attention is generally paid to the coppice, except when it is fit to be cut, but this is a great mistake: with a little attention a coppice may be doubled in value in a few years. It should be carefully drained where the water has not a ready outlet. Where the most profitable kinds of wood are deficient fresh plants should be supplied. The whole should be kept well stocked, but not overstocked; and the pruning-knife should be used where it appears necessary, especially where hop-poles are in request, which usually bear a good price Hop poles require a longer time to attain the proper size, and more room to grow. For this purpose the coppice may be thinned out, without being entirely cut down. When a coppice is cut, attention must be paid to the manner in which the poles and rods are cut off from the stem. They should be divided by a clean slanting cut with a very sharp axe or bill-hook, so as not to shatter the stump which is left. The wound will then soon heal over, and the stump will not be injured by the wet and decay, as is too often the case. When fresh ground is planted for a coppice, it should always be previously trenched and drained. The extra expense of this will soon be repaid. Scotch firs may be planted at first as nurses and shelter to the oaks and other forest trees. In seven or eight years the firs will have acquired a considerable height, and may be thinned out or cut down; they never shoot again from the root. The other trees may be left to grow a few years longer, before they are cut down. After the first cutting, attention must be paid to the stumps and all superfluous shoots removed. In seven or eight years a thick coppice will be formed, which will increase in value every time it is cut, and will produce a very good annual rent for land which might not have been profitable in cultivation, either as pasture or arable farms. The annual expense of a coppice is trifling, and the regular returns are certain and profitable. When a portion of coppice is cut every year, so as to have à regular rotation, the income is as regular as that of any other part of

an estate. A proportion of coppice on an estate is essential to the production of game and to its preservation.

The ground most favourable for coppice is that which is too steep or rocky for cultivation, and where the climate will not allow of the vine. Where the land is flat, and can be well drained, arable farms will always be most profitable, unless in some poor sandy soils, where corn will not grow without extraordinary manuring, while the roots of some kinds of trees will sink to a great depth and find there the nourishment necessary to their growth. In such sandy soils the birch, the maple, and the acacia sometimes grow luxuriantly, when the grass on the surface scarcely shows signs of vegetation. On wet and boggy soils the willow and the alder are almost the only trees that will thrive. Whoever plants a coppice must be well acquainted with the soil to a considerable depth, and must choose his plants accordingly. COPT, the name given to the Christian descendants of the ancient Egyptians. It is correctly pronounced either Ckoobt or Ckibt, and it is generally believed that the name is derived from Coptos, once a great city in Upper Egypt, now called Ckooft or Gooft, to which, during their persecution by the Roman emperors, many of the Egyptian Christians retired. We are inclined to recognise in Copt the main part of the ancient name of the country AlyvπTOS. The name Copts seems to have been used as the common designation of the Christians in Egypt from the time of the Emperor Heraclius, when the patriarch Benjamin was permitted to return from his exile in the Thebais (about A.D. 644) and to resume his functions as a bishop at Alexandria. (Le Quien, Oriens Christianus,' ii. 481.) They are not an unmixed race, their ancestors in the earlier ages of Christianity having intermarried with Greeks, Nubians, and Abyssinians. The secession of the early Christians of Egypt from the Church of Constantinople occasioned bitter enmities to spring up between them and the Greeks, on which account they suffered so much persecution, that they united with the Arab invaders of their country to expel the Greeks; but though their revenge was gratified, they were compelled to bow to a heavier yoke. With the exception of a small proportion who profess the Romish or the Greek faith, the Copts are Christians of a sect called Jacobites, Eutychians, Monophysites, and Monothelites, whose creed was condemned by the council of Chalcedon, A.D. 451. The number of churches and convents in ruins prove that the Copts were once far more numerous than at present: they do not now compose more than one-fourteenth part of the population of Egypt, their number not exceeding 150,000, about 10,000 of whom reside at Cairo. Conversions to the Mohammedan faith, and intermarriages with the Moslems, have occasioned this decrease in their numbers; to which may be added the persecutions which they endured from their Arabic invaders and subsequent rulers. They were forced to adopt distinctions of dress, and they still wear a turban of a black or blue, or a grayish or light brown colour, in contradistinction to the red or white turban. The distinction is generally carefully observed in the towns, but less so in the villages. Under the dominion of the recent Pashas of Egypt, the Copts are not the despised race they once were some of them have even been raised to the rank of beys. The male adults pay a tribute, besides the income tax which they pay in common with the rest of the inhabitants; but they are exempt from military service. This immunity is the result of Moslem prejudice.

In some parts of Upper Egypt there are villages exclusively inhabited by the Copts, and in every village of moderate size is a Mo'allim (a title given to all Copts except those of the poor class or peasants), who keeps the register of the taxes. Most of the Copts in Cairo are employed as secretaries and accountants, or tradesmen; they are chiefly engaged in the government offices; and as merchants, goldsmiths, silversmiths, jewellers, architects, builders, and carpenters, they are generally considered more skilful than the Moslems. In the villages they are employed in agriculture, like the rest of the peasantry. The patriarch or head of the Coptic church, judges petty causes among his people in the metropolis, and the inferior clergy do the same in other places; but an appeal may be made to the cadi. A Moslem aggrieved by a Copt may demand justice either from the patriarch or cadi, but a Copt who seeks redress from a Moslem must apply to the cadi. The Copts are somewhat under the middle size. They are extremely bigoted, and bear a bitter hatred to all other Christians; they are of a sullen temper, extremely avaricious, great dissemblers, ignorant, and faithless. In their habits they scarcely differ from their fellow-countrymen. Their dress, with the exceptions already noticed, is similar. The women veil their faces, according to the custom of the country. The Copts frequently indulge in excessive drinking; but in their meals, the mode of eating, the manner in which they pass their hours of leisure, which is chiefly in smoking their pipes and drinking coffee, they resemble the other inhabitants of the country. The women, however, though closely veiled when out of doors, like the Turkish women, eat at the same table with their husbands and family, unveiled, even in the presence of strangers; and the priest has unrestricted access to them for the purposes of confession.

The Coptic hierarchy consists of a patriarch, a metropolitan of the Abyssinians, bishops, arch priests, priests, deacons, and monks. The patriarch is styled "Patriarch of Alexandria,” but generally resides in

Cairo. He is usually chosen by lot, and always from several monks of the convent of St. Anthony, in the Eastern Desert, who are nominated by the superior. He continues to observe the monastic regulations, one of which is to remain unmarried. The metropolitan of Abyssinia, who always resides within his diocese, is appointed by the patriarch, and retains his office for life. The number of bishops is twelve, who are generally chosen from the monastic order. The arch-priests are numerous, and selected from among the priests. The priests are required to be of the age of thirty-three years at the least, and are not permitted to marry, though they may have married before taking the priesthood; but if the wife dies they cannot marry again; and the widow of a priest is not allowed to marry a second husband. The priests are supported only by alms and by what they obtain by their own industry. A deacon must be either a person unmarried, or have been only once married to a virgin bride. By taking a second wife he loses his office. The monks undergo a severe novitiate, and take the vow of celibacy. The churches contain ill-executed and gaudy pictures of various saints, but no images are admitted. The number of Coptic churches and convents is said to amount to 146, but the former are few in comparison with the latter. The form of service is not characterised by much solemnity, and the conduct of the priests is often somewhat indecorous. The marriage ceremony is performed either by a priest, or without his assistance by mutual consent before witnesses; and divorces are as easily to be obtained by either party as with the Mussulmans. Baptism is practised under a belief that if the ceremony be omitted the child will be blind in the next world. The children are generally circumcised; but in Cairo the custom is less strictly observed than in other parts of the country. Confession is required of all members of the Coptic church, and is indispensable before receiving the Lord's supper. Wednesday and Friday are observed as fast-days, except during the fifty days immediately following the Great Fast. The seven great festivals are as follow:-the Nativity of Christ, Baptism, the Annunciation, Palm Sunday, Easter, the Ascension, and Whit-Sunday. The Copts are not allowed by their church to intermarry with persons of any other sect.

(An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern E yptians, written in Egypt during the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, by Edward William Lane; Reise in den Orient, by Konstantin Tischendorf, Leipzig, 1846.)

COPTIC LANGUAGE, the language spoken and written by the inhabitants of Egypt since the introduction of the Christian religion into that country; and distinguished from the more ancient Egyptian language, which was in use under the Pharaohs and the Ptolemies. What was the relation of the ancient to the more recent language of Egypt, we are unable to determine, as our information respecting the former is very imperfect. Egypt lost much of its consequence when it became a Roman province; and when Alexandria ceased to be a royal residence, arts and literature would naturally fall into decay. Another cause which proved fatal to Egyptian literature was the early introduction of Christianity into Egypt. This event which contributed to extend the study of Greek literature and the use of the Greek language, at the same time deprived the ancient literature of the country, as chiefly connected with the old religion, of the better part of its interest. Notwithstanding these unfavourable circumstances, the language of the country continued in ordinary use, particularly in the interior provinces. Many hermits in the desert of Thebais, and many bishops of Upper and Lower Egypt, knew no other language; and the Egyptian, or as it is more appropriately called during these later times, the Coptic language survived for seven or eight centuries after the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs, but it gradually gave way to the Arabic, which is now the language generally in use throughout Egypt.

The literature extant in the Coptic language is by no means rich. The only part of any intrinsic value seems to be the Coptic translations of the Bible, probably made towards the close of the 3rd and in the beginning of the 4th century, and following, as far as the Old Testament is concerned, the Septuagint version, the readings of which, as well as those of the Alexandrine text of the New Testament, they may serve to determine. Of the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, Dr. Henry Tattam published an edition, with a parallel Latin version, in 1852. Besides these, there exist Coptic translations of sermons from the Greek fathers, fragments of the decrees of councils, likewise generally translated from the Greek, liturgies, acts of martyrs, original mystic treatises on ethics, with numerous examples from the lives of pious hermits, and translations from the Greek of some apocryphal books of the New Testament.

Such as we find it, the Coptic language exhibits evident traces of the fate of the country in which it was spoken. Under the Ptolemies, and afterwards under the Romans, new forms of government and administration were introduced into Egypt; and the inhabitants necessarily borrowed from their conquerors the names of public offices and other terms relating to political matters. The Coptic language received a further supply of foreign words in consequence of the introduction of Christianity. A great number of Greek words were retained in the Coptic versions from an apprehension, as it seems, of profaning the Christian doctrine by venturing to translate expressions deemed peculiarly holy in the Greek original text. It has been remarked, that the proportion of Greek expressions is not the same in all Coptic

except common soccage, copyhold, and some other specified tenures. Though customary freeholds and ancient demesne lands for the most part pass by surrender and admittance, the admittance is expressed to be "to hold according to the custom of the manor."

The Statutes of Wills (32 Henry VIII. c. 1, and 34 & 35 Henry VIII. c. 5) do not include copyholds, and therefore formerly it was necessary in order to enable a person to dispose of copyholds by will that he should first have surrendered them "to the use of his will," as it was called. This ceremony was rendered unnecessary by the Statute 55 Geo. III. c. 192, which, however, does not extend to customary freeholds; but the Wills Act (1 Vict. c. 26) extends the power of disposition by will, without surrender to the use of the will and even before admittance, to customary freeholds and all customary or copyhold estates whatsoever. A devise of copyholds by will might formerly have been made without observing the formalities prescribed by the Statute of Frauds (29 Car. II. c. 3), the terms of that statute not extending to copyholds; but the requirements of the Wills Act (1 Vict. c. 26) must now be complied with. The Statute of Entails (13 Ed. I.), commonly called the Statute of Westminster the 2d, does not extend to copyholds; but in most manors a custom of entailing copyholds has prevailed. These entails might formerly be barred by a proceeding in the Lord's Court, analogous to a common recovery, or, in the absence of a custom authorising such a proceeding, by a mere surrender. And now by Statute (3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 74, § 50–54 inclusive) entails of copyholds may be barred by assurances made in pursuance of the provisions of that Act. It is a general rule that no statute relating to lands or tenements in which those of a customary tenure are not expressly mentioned, shall be applied to customary estates, if such application would be derogatory to the customary rights of the lord or tenant. Hence neither the provision in the Stat. of Westm. the 2d (13 Ed. I. c. 18), rendering debtors' lands liable to process of execution by writ of elegit, nor the Statute of Uses (27 Henry VIII. c. 10), nor the Statute of Partition (31 Henry VIII. c. 1, and 32 Henry VIII. c. 32), nor the Statute enabling persons having certain limited interests in lands to grant valid leases (32 Henry VIII. c. 28), nor any of the local Registry Acts, were applicable to copyhold Until a recent period copyholds could not be seized upon an outlawry, nor were they assets for payment of specialty debts at law, nor were they even liable for debts due to the crown, although they were always subject to sequestration under the decree of a court of equity. But copyhold lands belonging to traders were subjected to the operation of the bankrupt laws (v. stat. 6 Geo. IV. c. 16, sec. 68 and 69); and by Stat. 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 104, copyhold lands of all persons whatever which have not been devised for payment of debts, are rendered assets to be administered in a court of equity for the payment of specialty and simple contract debts. Copyholds are not liable (except by special custom) to the incidents of curtesy or dower. The latter, where authorised by the custom, is called the widow's "free bench." These estates being considered continuations of that of the deceased tenant, are perfectel without admittance. A purchaser or devisee of copyholds has an incomplete title until admittance; but the customary heir is so far legal owner of the land before admittance that he can surrender or devise it, or maintain an action of trespass or ejectment in respect of it. The lord may by a temporary seizure of the land compel an heir or devisee to come in and be admitted; and he is himself compellable by a mandamus of the Court of King's Bench to admit any tenant, whether claiming by descent or otherwise.

By the general custom of all manors, every copyholder may make a lease for any term of years, if he can obtain a licence from the lord, and even without such licence he may demise for one year, and in some manors for a longer term, and the interest thus created is not of a customary nature, but a legal estate for years, of the same kind as if it had been created out of a freehold interest. But every demise without licence for a longer period than the custom warrants, and in general, every alienation contrary to the nature of customary tenure, as a feoffment with livery of seisin, is followed by a forfeiture to the lord. A copyhold estate may also be forfeited by waste; as by cutting down timber, or opening mines, when such acts are not warranted by the custom. In the absence of such special custom, the general rule seems to be that the right of property both in trees and mines, belongs to the lord, while only a possessory interest is vested in the tenant; but neither can the lord without the consent of the tenant, nor the tenant without the licence of the lord, cut down trees, or open and work new mines. In like manner forfeiture may be incurred by an inclosure or other alteration of the boundaries of an estate, refusal to attend the customary courts, or to perform the services, or to pay the rent or fine incident to the tenure. The 9th section of the 1st Wm. IV., c. 65, protects infants, lunatics, and married women from the last mentioned cause of forfeiture. In case of felony or treason being committed by a copyholder, the lord has the absolute benefit of the forfeiture, unless it has been expressly provided otherwise by Act of Parliament. In all cases of forfeiture the lord may recover the forfeited estate by eject ment, without prejudice to the rights of the copyholders (if any there be) in reversion or remainder. He may waive the forfeiture by a subsequent act of recognition of the tenure. If he does not take advantage of the forfeiture for twenty years, his right to do so is barred by the Act for the Limitation of Actions, 3 & 4 Wm. IV. And if he

neglect to take advantage of the forfeiture in his life-time, his heir cannot avail himself of it.

The lord may also become entitled to a customary tenement by escheat for want of heirs. Formerly where a copyhold was surrendered to a mortgagee and his heirs, and no condition was expressed in the surrender, and the mortgagee died intestate and without an heir, the lord was entitled to enter for escheat. To remedy this, the 13 & 14 Vict. c. 60, repealing 4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 23, which contained a provision with a similar object, enacts that where a trustee or mortgagee of lands of any tenure whatsoever, dies without an heir, the Court of Chancery may make an order vesting such land in such persons, and for such estates as the court shall direct.

If the lord (having acquired a copyhold tenement by forfeiture, escheat, or surrender to his own use) afterwards grant it away by an assurance unauthorised by the custom, the customary tenure is for ever destroyed. And if he makes a legal conveyance in fee-simple of a copyhold tenement to the tenant, the tenement is said to be enfranchised, that is, converted into freehold.

Copyholders were till very lately incapable of serving on juries, or voting at county elections of members of parliament; but the former disability was removed by 6 Geo. IV. c. 50, s. 1, and the latter by the 2 & 3 Wm. IV. c. 45, s. 19. As to the qualification for killing game under 22 & 23 Car. II. c. 25, s. 3, there seems to be no distinction between freeholders and copyholders.

There are no lands of a copyhold tenure in Ireland. The statute of wills, 1 Vict. c. 26, which has been before alluded to, contains also the following provisions as to the testamentary disposition of copyholds, which require notice here. The 4th section provides that where any real estate of the nature of customary freehold, or tenant right, or customary or copyhold, might by the custom of the manor of which the same is holden, have been surrendered to the use of a will, and the testator shall not have surrendered the same, no person claiming to be entitled under his will shall be entitled to be admitted, except upon payment of all such stamp duties, fees, and sums of money as would have been due in respect of the surrender of such estate, or the presentment, registering, and enrolment of such surrender to the use of his will. And also, that where the testator, being entitled to admission to any real estate, and upon such admission to surrender the same to the use of his will, shall not have been admitted thereto, no person claiming to be entitled to such real estate in consequence of such will shall be entitled to admission, except on payment of all such stamp duties, fees, fine, and sums of money as would have been due in respect of the admittance of the testator to such real estate, the surrender to the use of his will, the presentment, registering, or enrolment of such surrender; all such stamp-duties, fees, fine, or sums of money to be paid in addition to the stamp duties, fees, fine, or sums of money due on the admittance of the person so claiming to be entitled to such real estate.

By the 5th section, when any real estate of the nature of customary freehold, or tenant right, or customary, or copyhold, is disposed of by will, the lord of the manor, or reputed manor, of which such real estate is holden, or his steward, or the deputy of such steward, is to cause the will by which such disposition is made, or an extract thereof, to be entered on the Court Rolls; and when any trusts are declared by the will, it is not to be necessary to enter the declaration of such trusts, but it is to be sufficient to state in the entry on the Court Rolls that such real estate is subject to the trusts declared by the will; and when such real estate could not have been disposed of by will, except by virtue of the act, the same fine, heriot dues, duties, and services are to be paid and rendered by the devisee as would have been due from the customary heir in case of the descent of such real estate. And the lord is, as against the devisee, to have the same remedy for recovering and enforcing such fine, heriot dues, duties, and services as he is entitled to against the customary heir in case of a descent.

By the 6th section, if no disposition by will be made of any estate pur auter vie of a freehold nature, the same is to be chargeable in the hands of the heir, if it come to him by reason of special occupancy, as assets by descent, as in the case of freehold land in fee simple; and in case there be no special occupant of any estate pur auter vie, whether freehold or customary freehold, tenant right, customary or copyhold, or of any other tenure, and whether a corporeal or incorporeal hereditament, it is to go to the executor or administrator of the party that had the estate by virtue of the grant; and if the estate come to the executor or administrator, either by reason of a special occupancy or by virtue of the act, it is to be assets in his hands, and to go and be applied and distributed in the same manner as the personal estate of the testator or intestate. By the 26th section a general devise of the testator's lands is to include copyholds, unless a contrary intention appear by the will; which is an alteration of the old rule whereby copyholds did not pass under a general devise of "lands, tenements, and hereditaments," or other general words descriptive of real estate, unless the copyholds had been surrendered to the use of the will, or the testator had no freehold lands upon which it could operate. And besides the above-mentioned changes relating peculiarly to copyholds, all the other enactments of the act, including that which prescribes the formalities to be observed in making a will, are applicable to estates of copyhold or customary tenure.

By the 11th section of the 1 & 2 Vict. c. 110, copyholds are made

subject to execution by judgment creditors in the same manner as freeholds.

Still greater changes in the nature of estates of copyhold and customary tenure are gradually taking place under the provisions of the stats. 4 & 5 Vict. c. 35; 6 & 7 Vict. c. 23; 7 & 8 Vict. c. 55; 15 & 16 Vict. c. 51 and 21 & 22 Vict. c. 94.

The principal objects of these Acts are, 1. The commutation of certain manorial rights in respect of lands of copyhold and customary tenure; 2. The facilitating the enfranchisement of such lands; and 3. The improvement of such tenure. The first of these Acts provided a cumbrous machinery for general commutations which was not found very effective, and it merely enabled commutations and enfranchisements to be made, where all parties were agreed, but without empowering either party, whether lord or tenant, to compel the other to enfranchise or commute. Under its enactments, however, a good many enfranchisements took place in the case of manors of which ecclesiastical bodies were the lords, under the direction of the ecclesiastical commissioners. The Act 15 & 16 Vict. c. 51 (1852), first introduced the important principle of enabling one party, whether lord or tenant, to compel the concurrence of the other in enfranchisement, and this Act has been found very efficacious. Its first section enacts, that "at any time after the next admittance to any lands which shall take place on or after the first day of July, 1853, in consequence of any surrender, bargain and sale, or assurance thereof (except upon or under a mortgage in cases where the mortgagee is not in possession), or in consequence of any descent, gift, or demise, and whether such surrender, bargain and sale, or assurance, shall have been made, passed, or executed, or such descent shall happen, or such gift or demise shall take effect before or after that day, it shall be lawful for the tenant so admitted, or for the lord, to require and compel enfranchisement in manner hereinafter mentioned of the lands to which there shall have been such admittance as aforesaid." The mode of effecting enfranchisement directed by this Act has Leen since altered by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 94 (1858), of which the eighth section enacts, that "when any lord or tenant shall, under the provisions of the Copyhold Act, 1852, or of this Act, require the enfranchisement of any land held of a manor, he shall give notice in writing (the lord or his steward to the tenant, or the tenant to the lord or his steward) of his desire that such land shall be enfranchised, and the consideration to be paid to the lord for such enfranchisement, and also the sum to be paid to the lord in respect of a heriot due for a customary freehold, shall, unless the parties agree about the same, be ascertained under the directions of the copyhold commissioners, and upon a valuation made in manner following: (that is to say), when the manorial rights to be compensated shall consist only of heriots, rents, and licences, at fixed rates, to demise or fell timber, or any of these, or when the land to be enfranchised shall not be rated to the poors' rate at a greater amount than the net annual value of 207., then the valuation shall be made by a valuer to be nominated by the justices at a petty session holden for the division or place in which the manor or the chief part thereof is situate: provided that no justice, being lord, either in whole or in part, of such manor, shall take any part in nominating such valuer; subject, however, to these provisoes: first, that if the parties agree to recommend to the commissioners any person to be the valuer, such person shall be nominated by the commissioners; and second, that either party may, upon paying the charges of his own valuer, have the valuation made as next hereinafter provided. But when the manorial rights to be compensated do not consist only of rents and heriots and such licences as aforesaid, or when the land to be enfranchised is rated to the poors'rate at a greater amount than the not annual value of 201., or where the valuation to be made is of the sum to be paid to the lord in respect of a heriot due for a customary freehold, then the valuation shall, unless the parties agree to refer it to one valuer, be made by two valuers, one to be appointed by the lord, and the other by the tenant; and such two valuers, before they proceed, shall appoint an umpire, to whom any points in dispute between them shall be referred; and in case the valuer or valuers, or umpire, as the case may be, shall not make a decision and deliver the particulars thereof in writing to the lord or steward and to the tenant, and to the copyhold commissioners, within forty-two days after the appointment of such valuers, or re.erence of the matter to the umpire, as the case may be, then the commissioners shall fix the consideration to be paid or rendered to the lord; and in any case when, after notice to the lord or steward, or to the tenant so to do, either party shall neglect or refuse, for twentyeight days, to appoint his valuer, the commissioners shall appoint a valuer for him as soon as may be after the expiration of such twentyeight days; and in any case where any valuers shall, for the space of fourteen days after the appointment, be unable to agree in the appointment of an umpire, the commissioners shall appoint an umpire." This last-mentioned Act also enables lord or tenant to compel enfranchisement of a copyhold to which the last admittance shall have taken place before the 1st of July, 1853.

The following table, which is taken from the 'Seventeenth Report of the Copyhold Commissioners,' dated December 31, 1858, will show what has been effected under the operation of the enfranchisement Acts. The table distinguishes the manner in which enfranchisement has taken place into clerical, collegiate and lay, and shows the number

The rapid increase of enfranchisements under the operation of the compulsory clauses is observable, and ultimately it may be anticipated that copyhold tenure will cease to exist. COPYING-MACHINES. The great value of a convenient and certain means of copying any piece of writing with perfect accuracy, and with less labour than is involved in the process of transcribing, has led to numerous inventions which may be classed under the general name of copying-machines, some of which are extensively used in mercantile establishments for producing duplicates of letters, invoices, and other MS. papers.

The most simple and obvious mode of effecting this object is by transferring, by means of a rolling or screw-press, a portion of the ink with which a letter is written to the surface of a sheet of blank paper, prepared to receive it by damping. The transfer thus obtained is of course the reverse of the original letter, and, unless it be taken on paper so thin and transparent that it may be read through it, must be read backwards. Watt's copying press was a contrivance for obtaining transfers of this kind upon thin unsised paper, wetted, and then placed between two woollen cloths, which absorbed all unneces sary moisture. Elegant screw-presses of iron are manufactured for this purpose, of various designs; some having the power applied solely by means of a screw, turned by a transverse bar or lever, or by a cross or wheel-shaped handle; while others have also a contrivance for increasing the pressure beyond what can be conveniently applied by the simple turning of the screw. One of the best and simplest copying-presses is that invented by Mr. Ritchie, of Edinburgh, in which the platten is depressed by a screw, turned by a short transverse handle, until a moderate pressure is given; after which, by the movement of a second lever-handle acting upon an excentric cam, which bears upon a piece of steel attached to the head of the screw, the screw and platten are further depressed through a very small space, but with immense force. Barlow describes a very simple and compact copying-machine invented by the elder Brunel, in which the pressure is given by means of levers. In some cases, letters intended for transferring by the copying-press are written with an ink made for the purpose; or, when common ink is used, it may be thickened by adding a little sugar to it. In some cases the transfers are taken from the pages of a MS. book prepared for the purpose, a sheet of dry oiled paper being placed over the damp sheet to prevent the transmission of the moisture. It is almost needless to observe that transfers may be taken from several written sheets at one operation of the press. Hebert gives the following description of a simple, and, he says, effectual copying-machine : Take a roller of beech, or any hard wood, about 18 inches long and 1 inch in diameter, and having cut a longitudinal slit therein nearly the whole length, insert in it and fasten very neatly with glue a slip of strong cloth, about 14 inches wide and 18 inches long; the remaining part of the roller will serve as a handle, and may be cut with several faces to obtain a firmer hold. To use this copying-press, lay the sheet of paper on which the letter is written upon the strip of cloth; on that place the thin copying-paper, and upon these lay a thick baize or horse-hair pad; then roll the whole round the roller, and grasping that part where the cloth is with the lefthand, turn the roller round with the right, gradually increasing the grasp with the left; the pressure becomes very great, and quite sufficient to transfer the letter to the copying-paper."

Holland, in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia,' mentions a plan suggested by Dr. Franklin, which, although he styles it ineligible in practice, is worth recording as conveying an idea which might be usefully applied. He proposed to write the original letter with a gummy ink, and then to strew it over with flour-emery, which would be retained by the ink, though it would not adhere to any other part of the surface of the paper. The writing was then to be laid, face downwards, upon a smooth pewter-plate, and subjected to the action of a powerful rolling-press, which, he conceived, would cause the emery to make an impression of the writing upon the surface of the metal, which might be charged with printing ink, and printed from like an engraved plate.