and Upper Canada, with dried fish, when that country shall be peopled by many millions. Lakes Huron and Michigan also abound with them. This lake, and the others, also, abound with pike, pickerel, carp, bass, herring, and numerous other kinds of fish. The great lakes, from the comparative shallowness of their beds, and the circumstance that their waters possess less specific gravity than those of the ocean,—and it may be from other causes,—when swept by the winds, raise waves more rough and dangerous than those of the sea, though not quite so mountainous. It has been often as serted that they have diurnal and septennial fluxes and refluxes. This, however, is not an established fact; and we are certain that, even if they exist, they are irregular and inconsiderable. The waters of lake Superior are partly derived from the marshes and shallow lakes, covered with wild rice, which supply the upper waters of the Mississippi. These are slimy and unpalatable until they find their level, and undergo the action of the lake, where they become transparent, and lose their swampy taste. The lower strata of the waters of the lake never gain the temperature of summer. A bottle sunk to the depth of a hundred feet, and there filled, in midsummer, feels, when brought to the surface, as if filled with ice-water. The shores of this lake, especially on the north and south, are rocky and nearly barren. In some places, the coast is very rough, and highly elevated. The lake is of difficult navigation; but there seem to be no insurmountable obstacles to its becoming a pathway for all vessels of strength and good size. It contains many islands. Isle Royal, the largest, is said to be one hundred miles long, and forty broad. It receives more than thirty rivers, and discharges its waters into lake Huron by the river or strait of St. Mary. The pictured rocks, so called from their appearance, are on the south side of the lake, towards the east end. They are an extraordinary natural curiosity. They form a perpendicular wall 300 feet high, extending about twelve miles. They present a great variety of forms, having numerous projections and indentations, and vast caverns, in which the entering waves make a jarring and tremendous sound. Among the objects here which attract particular attention, are the cascade La Portaille and the Doric arch. The cascade consists of a considerable stream, precipitated from the height of about seventy feet by a

single leap into the lake. It leaps to such a distance, that a boat may pass dry between it and the rocks. The Doric rock, or arch, has the appearance of a work of art, consisting of an isolated mass of sandstone, with four pillars supporting an entablature or stratum of stone, covered with soil, and a handsome growth of pine and spruce trees, some of which are fifty or sixty feet high. The only outlet to this lake is St. Mary's strait. This extends to lake Huron: others connect the other lakes; and the combined waters of all find their way to the ocean by the St. Lawrence. It is not, however, to be imagined, that the St. Lawrence discharges an amount of water that is at all comparable with what the lakes receive. They spread over so great a surface, that the evaporation from them must be immense. They are scarcely affected by the spring floods of the hundreds of rivers which they receive; and their outlets have no such floods. Like the ocean itself, these mighty inland seas seem to receive without increase, and to impart without diminution.

SUPERIOR PLANETS. (See Planets.) SUPERNATURALISM, a word chiefly used in German theology, is contradistinguished to rationalism. It is difficult to give any satisfactory view of these conflicting religious opinions, within our limits; but the subject is too interesting to be wholly passed over. In its widest extent, supernaturalism is the doctrine, that religion and the knowledge of God require a revelation from God. So far there is no difference of sentiment. All admit that God cannot be conceived of, except on the supposition that he has manifested himself; but the next step gives rise to disagreement. What is this manifestation or revelation, from which we derive the knowledge of God? Some conceive such knowledge to be conveyed only by a direct external communication from God; to which it is objected that freedom of faith and knowledge would be thereby destroyed, and, at the same time, all examination of true religion, and distinction of it from superstition and fanaticism, would cease. To this supernaturalism, which considers religion as something supernatural, excluding the free activity of the intellectual nature of man, is opposed the other extreme, that religion is founded on human reason alone, and can dispense with a revelation from God. But, generally speaking, the words supernaturalism and rationalism are used particularly in reference to the Christian religion. Rationalism

maintains that the Christian religion must be judged of, like other phenomena, by the only means which we have to judge with, viz. reason. It often goes farther, and asserts, that Jesus was only a man of an elevated character, who purified religion from corruption, and inculcated nobler views respecting God, and the destiny of man, than those which had prevailed among the Jews and heathens before him, and preached and practised a purer morality, which, through God's favor, became widely diffused. All notions which cannot be reconciled with these, they say, ought to be considered as additions to the simplicity of Christianity, and to be set aside, or rejected. Supernaturalism considers the Christian religion as an extraordinary phenomenon, out of the circle of natural events, and as communicating truths above the comprehension of human reason. Jesus is that person of the Godhead who brought this supernatural truth to men, and, by his blood, saved the human species from the lost state to which it had been reduced by the fall of Adam, rose again, and now rules the world with God the Father. Human reason must therefore receive, unconditionally, the mysterious truths, divinely communicated in the Holy Scripture; and this is the only way to learn the truth and obtain salvation. These views are variously modified; and, as is the case with all important questions, many believe that both run into extremes; that in the one, too much is claimed for human reason, whilst in the other, feeling has an undue ascendency; that supernaturalism has depth without clearness, and rationalism, such as we have represented it, clearness without depth. This intermediate party, who by some have been termed rationalists, whilst the extreme party are called hyperrationalists, say that, supernaturalism removes religious truth beyond the sphere of the human understanding, and even beyond the possibility of recognition. If, say they, divine truth is something which comes entirely from without, and is unconnected with other truth, where is our capacity to recognise it? The revelation of the omnipresent Ruler of the world, which pervades all ages, is, they further say, annihilated, if Christianity has no connexion with that revelation, or manifes tation, and if it is essentially different from what existed before, or without it. On the other hand, they allow that the hyperrationalists misunderstand the character of human reason, and oppose it to Christianity, so as to reduce this to an or

dinary subject of human judgment. Christianity they consider as intermediate between these two views, as presenting in Christ the sublimest union of man with God, whilst it leaves to theological science the task of unfolding the full extent of revealed truth.

SUPERSTITION; the error of those who, in their opinions of the causes on which the fate of men depends, believe or disbelieve, without judgment and knowledge. The external causes by which the fate of men is decided, are God and nature; and accordingly there is a religious, and a philosophical superstition. Superstition shows itself either in deriving natural effects from supernatural causes, attributing, for instance, an uncommon disease, connected with striking symptoms, to the influence of some evil spirit, or in believing such events as accidentally follow each other to be united by invisible connexions; as, for example, in considering a comet a messenger of distress, because it has happened sometimes, that, after the appearance of a comet, a misfortune has taken place. It is impossible to point out all the kinds of superstition, as they have existed among different nations, and to estimate the melancholy effects which they have had on human virtue and happiness. Yet it is not always easy to fix the limits of superstition; and many an assertion or opinion, which has been rejected, at one time, as mere superstition, has been proved; in later times, to be founded in truth. Medical science, in particular, affords many such instances.

SUPPLEMENT OF AN ARC, in geometry, is the number of degrees that it wants of being an entire semicircle; as complement signifies what an arc wants of being a quadrant. In literature, supplement is an appendage to a book, which supplies what was deficient in it.

SUPPORTERS, in heraldry; figures standing on the scroll, and placed by the side of the escutcheon, and seeming to support or hold up the same. They are sometimes human figures, and at other times animals, and creatures of the imagination.

SUPREMACY. According to the Roman Catholics, St. Peter was not only the head of the apostolical college, but the_pastor of the universal church. The Roman pontiff is the successor of this prince of the apostles, and, like him, has authority and jurisdiction over the whole church, all believers, without exception, owing him respect and obedience. The council of Trent declared that the sovereign pontiff

is the vicar of God upon earth, and has supreme power over all the church. The extent of the authority thus assumed by the pope, is different in different countries, and the whole doctrine of the papal supremacy is of course rejected by the Protestant, Greek and other churches. In 1534, Henry VIII assumed the title of the only supreme head, on earth, of the church of England. The oath of supremacy (that is, of renunciation of the papal supremacy), with the oath of abjuration (q. v.), was formerly required to be taken by all persons in office, and might be tendered, by two justices of the peace, to all persons suspected of disaffection in England. Some modifications of the law requiring this oath were made in 1793 (see Catholic Emancipation); but it was still, with the declaration against transubstantiation, the invocation of saints, and the sacrifice of the mass, requisite as a qualification for sitting and voting in parliament, and for holding certain offices, until the passage of the Catholic relief bill. This bill repeals all former acts on the subject, and reures of a Roman Catholic peer, or member of the house of commons, &c., besides the oath of allegiance and abjuration, the following oath of supremacy: I do declare that it is not an article of my faith, and that I do reject, renounce and abjure the opinion, that princes excommunicated or deprived by the pope, or any other authority of the see of Rome, may be deposed or murdered by their subjects, or by any person whatsoever; and I do declare that I do not believe that the pope of Rome, or any other foreign prince, prelate, person, state or potentate, hath, or ought to have, any temporal or civil jurisdiction, power, superiority or preeminence, directly or indirectly, within this realm.

SUPREME COURT OF THE U. STATES. (See Courts of the U. States, paragraph 3.) SURAT; a city of Hindoostan, in Guzerat, on the Taptee, twenty miles from its mouth; lon. 73° 3′ E.; lat. 21° 13′ N. The population was estimated, in 1796, at 800,000; the returns of 1816 gave a population of about 325,000. It is one of the most ancient and populous cities of India, and was formerly called the imperial port, and was the place whence Mohammedan pilgrims were conveyed to Mecca, often at the expense of government. The articles of its commerce were of the richest kind, viz. diamonds, pearls, gold, musk, ambergris, spices, indigo, saltpetre, silk, and fine cottons. But since the rise of Bombay, its commerce has

much declined, and now consists chiefly of raw cotton, a few of its own manufactures, and articles imported from Guzerat. The greater number of vessels that now enter the port are Arabs. All large ves sels are obliged to remain at the mouth of the river called Swallow roads, where they are somewhat exposed to storms; but the anchorage is good. The value of the exports, in 1811, amounted to 3,964,523 rupees. Surat is situated in a fertile plain, protected on one side by the river, and on the three others by a brick rampart and ditch. It also possesses a strong citadel, surrounded by an esplanade. It is inhabited by a great variety of people; but the Parsees, or fire worshippers, are most affluent. In 1807, there were reckoned 1200 Parsees of the sacerdotal class, and 12,000 of the laity. The hospital for the preservation of maimed or diseased animals was formerly occupied by rats, mice, bugs, &c. The squares of the city are large, the streets spacious, but not paved, and the dust troublesome. The larger houses are flat roofed; the houses of the common people high roofed. The civil administration of this city has been vested in the hands of the English East India company since 1800.

SURD, in arithmetic and algebra, denotes any number or quantity that is incommensurable to unity; otherwise called an irrational number or quantity. (See Irrational Quantity.)

SURGERY (from the Greek yep, the hand, and ioyov, work); that branch of the healing art which cures or prevents diseases by the application of the hand, either unaided or with the aid of instruments. War early made the healing of wounds more important than the curing of diseases, which were then less frequent, on account of the simple manner of living. Fifty years before the Trojan war, Melampus, Chiror, and his disciple Esculapius, accompanied the Argonautic expedition in the quality of surgeons; and in the Trojan war, two sons of Esculapius, Machaon and Podalirius, took care of the wounded Greeks. The Greek and Arabian physicians, at a later period, cultivated surgery and medicine together, as is proved by the works of Hippocrates, Galen, Celsus, Paulus of Ægina, Albucasis, &c. However, in the time of Hippocrates, some surgical operations were kept separate from medicine. In the oath of Hippocrates, lithotomy was forbidden to physicians. The Arabians also felt an aversion for operations, and it was considered beneath the dignity of physicians

to operate themselves. The Romans left them generally to their slaves. In the middle ages, the practice of the healing art was almost exclusively confined to the monks and priests. But, in 1163, the council of Tours prohibited the clergy, who then shared with the Jews the practice of medicine in Christian Europe, from performing any bloody operation. Surgery was banished from the universities. under the pretext that the church detested all bloodshed. Medicine and surgery were now completely separated. This separation was the more easily effected, since the bath-keepers and barbers had undertaken the practice of surgery. At the time of the crusades (from 1100), many diseases were introduced into Europe from the East, particularly into Italy, France and Germany, which caused the frequent use of baths, and the establishment of bathing-houses. In France, the company of barbers was formed, in 1096, when the archbishop William, of Rouen, forbade the wearing of the beard. These bath-keepers and barbers remained for several centuries in possession of the practice of surgery. Meanwhile the mists of the middle ages disappeared. Enlightened by anatomy, surgery assumed a new form; and the works of Berengario de' Carpi, of Fallopius, of Eustachius, &c., were the true source of the knowledge with which Ambrose Paré enriched this science, which had been degraded by its union with the barber's trade. By the discoveries of Cæsar Magatus, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, Wiseman, William Harvey, and Fabricius Hildanus, surgery made new progress. In 1731, the surgical academy was established in France, which soon became celebrated throughout Europe. Maréchal la Peyronie, Lamartinière, &c., were distinguished surgeons. The collection of memoirs and prize writings of the surgical academy contains the history of this flourishing period. There are preserved the labors of J. L. Petit, Garengeot, Lafaye, Lecat, Sabatier, and of several other practitioners. The emulation of all Europe was excited by such an example. At this period flourished, in England, Cheselden, Douglas, the two Monros, Sharp, Alanson, Pott, Smellie, the two Hunters; in Italy, Molinelli, Bertrandi, Moscati; in Holland, Albinus, Deventer, Camper; in Germany and the north of Europe, Heister, Zach, Platner, Stein, Röderer, Bilguer, Acrell, Callisen, Theden, and Richter. Down to the end of the last century, the French surgical academy contained many distinguished

members. Desault (q. v.) became the chief of the new school. Besides the surgical school of Paris, that of Strasburg, and particularly that of Montpellier (where Delpech distinguished himself), which has not always agreed with that of Paris, are celebrated. Now that surgery goes hand in hand with medicine, and is supported by exact anatomical knowledge, it advances with certainty towards perfection. All surgeons, however, are not capable of performing great operations. Some of the necessary qualities may be acquired by practice; but some of them must be received from nature. Sam. Cooper's Dictionary of Surgery, &c. (fourth edition), and Richerand's Origin of Modern Surgery (fifth edition, Paris), are much celebrated.

SURINAM ; a territory and colony of South America, in Guiana, belonging to the Netherlands, lying west of French Guiana and east of English Guiana; bounded north by the Atlantic, east by the river Maroni, south by a country of the Indians, and west by the river Courantyn. It is about 150 miles from east to west, and upwards of sixty from north to south; square miles, about 11,000; population, 57,000. The principal rivers are the Surinam, from which the colony takes its name, the Courantyn, Copename, Seramica, and Maroni. The first only is navigable: the others, though long and broad, are so shallow, and so crowded with rocks and small islands, that they are of but little consequence to Europeans; nor are their banks inhabited, except by Indians. In all of them the water rises and falls for more than sixty miles from the mouth, occasioned by the stoppage of the freshes by the tide. In the Maroni is found a pebble called the Maroni diamond. The climate, which was formerly extremely fatal to Europeans, has, within the last twenty years, been much improved, by the increased population of the colony and the better clearing of the ground. The year is divided into two wet and two dry seasons. The highest heat during the hot season is stated at 91°; the common temperature from 75° to 84°. This equal degree of heat is owing to sea-breezes, which regularly set in at ten o'clock, and continue till five P. M., cooling the atmosphere with a constant stream of delightful air. The settlements are chiefly on the Surinam and its branches. The soil is very fertile, producing sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoa, maize, and indigo. The uncultivated parts are covered with immense forests, rocks, and mountains;

some of the latter enriched with a variety of mineral productions. The river Surinam, which gives name to the colony, rises from mountains in the interior, and, after a course of about 150 miles, flows into the Atlantic, lon. 55° 40′ W., lat. 6° 25 N. It is about four miles wide at its mouth, and from sixteen to eighteen feet deep, at low water mark, the tide rising and falling above twelve feet. It is navigable for small craft 120 miles. Paramaribo, twelve miles from its mouth, is the capital of the colony. It has a safe and convenient harbor, with an active commerce, and contains a population of 8000 whites, and several thousand free blacks, slaves, &c. The English have several times been in possession of Surinam, but finally restored it, in 1815, to the Dutch government.

SURREY. (See Howard, Henry.) SURROGATE; one who is substituted or appointed in the room of another; as the bishop or chancellor's surrogate (from the Latin surrogare).

SURSOLID, in arithmetic and algebra; the fifth power, or fourth multiplication of any number or quantity, considered as a root. (See Root.)

SURTURBRAND, fossil wood, impregnat ed more or less with bitumen, is found in great abundance in Iceland. A bed of it extends nearly through the whole of the north-western part of the island. It is, in fact, a subterranean forest, impregnated with bituminous sap, and compressed by the weight of the superincumbent rocks. Branches and leaves are pressed together in a compact mass; but the fibres of each may be distinctly traced. The surturbrand is used by the Icelanders chiefly in their smithies, and in small quantities. It is sometimes so little mineralized as to be employed for timber.Surtur is the name of the northern god of fire. (See Northern Mythology.)

SURVEYING, in a general sense, denotes the art of measuring the angular and linear distances of objects, so as to be able to delineate their several positions on paper, and to ascertain the superficial area, or space between them. It is a branch of applied mathematics, and supposes a good knowledge of arithmetic and geometry, It is of two kinds, land surveying and marine surveying, the former having generally in view the measure or contents of certain tracts of land, and the latter the position of beacons, towers, shoals, coasts, &c. Those extensive operations which have for their object the determination of the latitude and longitude of places, and

the length of terrestrial arcs in different latitudes, also fall under the general term surveying, though they are frequently called trigonometrical surveys, or geodetic operations, and the science itself geodesy. (See Trigonometry, Degrees, Heights, and Triangle. Land surveying consists of three distinct operations: 1. the measuring of the several lines and angles; 2. protracting or laying down the same on paper, so as to form a correct map of an estate or country; 3. the computation of the superficial contents, as found by the preceding operation. Various instruments are used for the purpose of taking the dimensions, the most indispensable of which is the chain commonly called Gunter's chain, which is 22 yards long, and is divided into 100 links, each 7.92 inches: 10 of these square chains, or 100,000 square links, is one acre. This is used for taking the linear dimensions when the area of the land is required; but when only the position of objects is to be determined, a chain of 50 or 100 feet is more commonly used. A great deal of labor is frequently saved by having proper instruments for measuring angles. The most usual and the best adapted for this purpose are the circumferentor, theodolite and semicircle. The surveyor's cross, or cross-staff, is likewise very convenient for raising perpendiculars. For surveying in detail, the plain table is the best instrument. Of the German works on this subject, Meyer's Unterricht zur praktischen Geometrie (1815), and Lehmann's Anweisung zur richtigen Erkennung und genauen Abbildung der Erdoberfläche (1812), deserve to be recommended. (See Topography.)

SUS. PER COLL. On the trial of criminals in England, the usage at the assizes is for the judge to sign the calendar, or list of all the prisoners' names, with their separate judgments in the margin. For a capital felony, the sentence "Hanged by the neck" is written opposite the prisoner's name. Formerly, in the days of Latin and abbreviation, the phrase used was sus. per coll., for suspendatur per collum.

The

SUSQUEHANNA, the largest river of Pennsylvania, is formed by two branches which unite at Northumberland. east branch rises in Otsego lake, in New York: the western branch rises in Huntingdon county, Pennsylvania. After their junction, the river flows south-east into the head of Chesapeake bay, and is one and one fourth mile wide at its mouth. It is navigable only five miles.

SUSSEX, Augustus Frederic, duke of,