of National Industry. This society has, in all its proceedings, had constantly in view the progress of the useful arts; and it has sought to reward those inventions and improvements which render manual labor more productive, and which allow of that labor being better remunerated. These principles, disseminated throughout all classes of the productive community, have produced favorable results. Owing to the combined efforts of intelligence and labor, most of the products in request for general consumption have increased much more rapidly than the population. The nation, far from being impoverished by increased population, has, individually speaking, advanced in position; and the perceptible increase each year in the prosperity of the people has been the fitting recompense of the promoters of national industry.

The Society has not confined its operations to advancing the interests of masters or foremen, who are the natural and necessary directors of industrial labor, but its efforts have been alike extended to masters, foremen, and artificers.

Whilst proceeding according to these principles, a small number of persons were endeavouring to destroy their unity, upon which alone their success depends. These persons have represented the prosperity of one class as being obtained only at the expense of another. Instead of considering the union of capital and labor as advantageous to both, they have regarded them as antagonistic, and looked upon the different classes employed, even in the production of the same article, as inimical to each other. In other words, they have defined the state of the harmonious combination of industry between masters or patrons, foremen, fellow-workmen, and apprentices, in whatever branch of labor, as man living on the industry of his fellow man.

It is not our intention to excuse or palliate any abuse which may oppress the operative classes, for they are the constant objects of our solicitude; and we should hail with joy any legitimate measure which might conduce to their welfare. The question is, however, are we tending that way? In pointing out ameliorations which may be made by voluntary, prompt, and timely concessions, we must observe, that experience proves that the good understanding between employers and their workmen increases in a ratio proportionate to their mutual prosperity.

We might instance the successful efforts made by great manufacturers (at Fourchambault for instance) in allotting to their workmen land, which they may cultivate when not employed on their regular work. We might also cite other humane and wise measures, having the same object in view; viz., to assist the workman when his business is slack. Lastly, we might instance the arrangements adopted in various localities, for the improvement of the food, lodging, clothing, and health of workmen,as at Wesserling and Montereau, for example.

The most natural and noble attribute of this Society is to en

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courage these praiseworthy efforts, and hold them up as an example to others. But we are of opinion, that these methods of improving the condition of laborers, to be successful, must not be compulsory. We think that those concessions, which will necessarily be contested when their effect is to ruin the employers, must not be wrung from them by force.

Reserving for another period the enunciation of the improvements required, we will confine ourselves to a statement of our actual industrial condition; and this we will endeavour to do without exaggerating either the good or the evil. In workshops, as in all other places where men congregate, there will be found the bad as well as the good; but the former are fortunately less numerous than the latter; where, however, the bad predominate, the establishments are gradually broken up by the vices which disgrace them. Every one acquainted with industry, and desirous of discovering the permanent causes of success, will acknowledge that those establishments which prosper most are those in which the workmen are treated with justice. The prosperous establishments are the only ones which can properly treat, that is to say, properly remunerate, the services of the workman; and it is at these establishments where the best and most steady workmen offer themselves and remain,-which is another cause of success. The badly-constituted and badlydirected establishments, on the contrary, like those branches of industry which degenerate before they are utterly ruined, are forced gradually to diminish the salary of their workmen, and, at last, can retain only the most inefficient, which is another cause of their ruin. Thus it will be seen, that there exist between the masters and workmen strong and inevitable ties,—that is to say, between good masters and good workmen. In fact, as the master advances his fortune, so the comfort of the workmen increases; and when he is ruined, whatever may be the arrangement of his workshops, that ruin falls upon the workmen, who are compelled to seek employment elsewhere, and, in some cases, another kind of employment, when their branch of industry falls into decay.

The manner in which the numberless situations in the industrial world, commencing with the simple workman, are filled, is not generally understood; we will therefore explain this, that the powerful and beneficial organisation which has been produced in France, by liberty, may be appreciated. Under the old monarchy the various professions were divided into distinct, exclusive, and intolerant companies. Any person desiring to become a master could not then do so, whatever might be his capabilities; but since our first revolution in 1789, any workman who is not satisfied with his condition can assume the position of master, without being obliged to go through the old formalities. This it is which now constitutes the liberty of industry; and it is not a dead letter. At the present time one million eight hundred thousand citizens, masters of families, carry on manufactures, paying a tax

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each of them, and employing at least one workman. A much larger number of workmen, masters of families, work in private at their own houses, without paying any duty, and are, consequently, favored, instead of being oppressed, as they were before 1789.

In order to form a correct idea of the situation of the workmen in our various branches of industry, and comprising (agriculture excepted) seventeen millions of men, women, and children, it is necessary, in the first place, to take into account all those who work at home, and who compose much more than half of our workmen. Of the other portion, the great majority have not more than one fellow-workman in each workshop. In a word, in the same manner as France is the country of divided and small landed properties, it is also the country of divided industry and small workshops.

The first and paramount object for the popular interest is to know in what manner these small workshops, which are the creations of workmen, are gradually produced. If the workman possesses only a limited degree of intelligence, or if he is not active, industrious, and steady, it is in vain that he attempts to become a master; he cannot succeed in obtaining custom, or, if he does, he will not be able to retain it; and he is finally compelled to earn, as a subordinate in another establishment, the subsistence which he cannot obtain in his own. When he procures in this manner, under another, the livelihood which he could not obtain by working for himself, we ask all men of good faith whether, since he cannot, with the means at his disposal, work on his own account, it shall be said, invidiously, that he causes himself to be oppressed by another, and that society ought to take measures to prevent what is called man living on the industry of his fellow man? Certainly not. Supposing the workman to be skilful and steady, he can, when he has completed his apprenticeship, either remain with his master and take his chance of rising, or else work at home at piece-work on his own account. All the small workshops, both in town and country, are thus established by simple workmen, who have served their apprenticeship and start for themselves as soon as they are able to raise a little money; and even without that, if they are deserving, as they are very likely in that case to be taken by the hand by some benevolent person.

The number of workmen who determine to stand their chance of independent industry, and who gradually become masters, with workmen in their pay, is so considerable in this country, that most of the superintendents of workshops and factories have commenced by being simple workmen. Another remarkable fact is, that the most colossal fortunes have been amassed by operatives, who have risen from the lowest grade.

Such is the mode of progression, which is not confined to any particular place or period; but is a fruitful and generous move

ment, continually revivifying national industry. It is a boundless and unfettered assemblage of all available intelligence, experience, and improvement; or, in fact, an accumulation of all progression of persons and things, seconded, in a greater or less degree, by individual energy, order, economy, and all those good qualities which, in workshops, as in the world, contribute to the prosperity of man. In this progressive movement of the industrial population, personal interest, which is, of all counsellors, the one which meets with most attention, induces the master to choose for his foremen and workmen the most skilful, experienced, and steady men he can find. If he studies his interest, he promotes every one, according to his merit, and pays him according to his work; if he has no love for virtue for its own sake, a selfish feeling will make him just in the division and recompense of industry.

We will now endeavour to throw a light upon other results relative to those industrial establishments which, in order to prosper, require large capital, and in which considerable numbers of workmen are employed. From the commencement of the present century, and especially since the general peace, these vast establishments have been developed in France with marvellous rapidity. The manufactures carried on in large manufactories are mostly the produce of new inventions. It was necessary for the manufacturers introducing them to procure new laborers, either from adults, employed in the old manufactures, (who only preferred the new manufactures, inasmuch as they thereby obtained higher wages,) or from youth, not hitherto occupied.

It is, therefore, by ameliorating the condition of the operatives, and not by rendering it worse, that they are to be collected and retained; and collective labor, far from entailing misery and suffering upon them, has proved a source of comfort.

With this new and improved condition of the working classes, bestowed upon them by large manufacturers, would it, we ask, be just or reasonable to call this state of things—man living on the industry of his fellow man? The Society of Encouragement contradicts this without a moment's hesitation; and every good workman throughout France is of the same opinion. It is therefore proved, that the aggrandizement of manufactures, far from injuring the workman, tends to ameliorate his condition. When a manufactory increases its productive powers, the general expenses are very little altered, whilst the work is capable of being better distributed, according to the abilities of a larger number of workmen; consequently the labor is more productive. Large establishments can therefore sell at lower prices than small ones, and yet pay better wages. What is the result of this? It is, that those countries possessing the largest manufactories can afford to pay the highest wages; and, consequently, that those countries having the smallest are necessarily compelled to pay the lowest. A similar result will strike an attentive observer, on comparing the spin

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ning factories of Alsace and French Flanders. The former are, on an average, nearly double the size of the latter, and average double the number of workmen :-for this reason they are able to pay higher wages for the same quantity of labor, or, which is the same thing, pay the same wages for lighter hours. The only remedy for this inequality is, to encourage, in French Flanders, and other less advanced departments, the aggrandizement of manufactories, in order that they may arrive at the same prosperous state, as regards the operative, as the factories of Alsace.

We have shewn the progress of our most important manufactures during half a century. When first established, they were of moderate extent, with limited capital, and less credit; their profits enabled them first, to pay off the advances which had been made to establish them, and afterwards to increase in size and number. By degrees, the territory of the best situated departments became covered with manufactories, in which the population, attracted by the high wages, found remuneration, occupation, and comfort. If, at the commencement of this century, when the first Consul was giving the utmost encouragement to French manufactures, he had, on the contrary, declared war against productive capital-cut open the fowl that was to lay the golden eggs, and cut down the profits which enabled the manufacturers to enlarge and multiply their establishments—then the magnificent factories which now support hundreds of thousands of our workmen, would either not have been founded, or would have remained stationary and insignificant. During all this time, England, the United States, Germany, and all the manufacturing countries, would have gained considerable advantage over us ; they would have shut us out from the market of the world, and taken possession of our trade. Thus speaks experience, and replies triumphantly to unjustifiable projects, having for their object, on the one hand, to attack and break down productive capital; and on the other, to lessen, by force and intimidation, the advantages legitimately obtained by the promoters and benefactors of national industry;—and thus replies experience, in the name of humanity itself, to projects having for progressive result, first, to impoverish, and, finally, to annihilate the most important manufactures naturalized in France, and which, by extraordinary activity, order, patience, and talent, support entire populations.

In time of peace, with the formidable opposition of adjacent countries, and especially England, if the rights of our manufacturers were to be suddenly and forcibly broken down, whilst those of other countries remain intact, we would ask, with what chance of success could they compete with those countries? We should be forced to abandon 800 millions (of francs) of annual products, exported by national industry. This would throw eight hundred thousand workmen (who support double that number of women and children) out of employ, and, consequently, deprive them of the means of subsistence: and this would be the ~lt of a proceeding having for its avowed object the benefit