The Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal Axis: Physiology, Pathophysiology, and Psychiatric Implications

abnormal ACTH ACTH and cortisol ACTH secretion activity addition administration adrenal affective disorder altered animals appears assay associated basal baseline behavioral brain cell central changes Clin clinical compared concentrations controls corticosteroid cortisol Cushing's disease decreased demonstrated depressed patients determine dexamethasone diagnosis doses Duke University effects elevated Endocrinol Endocrinology evidence factors findings function glucocorticoid Gold h-CRH higher hippocampus hormone HPA axis human hypercortisolism hypothalamic increased inhibition interaction levels major depression mean measured mediated Medical Nemeroff neurons normal nucleus observed occur peptide pg/ml pituitary plasma plasma ACTH post-dexamethasone Press produced prolactin Psychiatry psychotic rats recent receptors regulation release reported Research response Rivier role samples Science sensitivity separation showed shown significant significantly similar specific stimulation stress studies subjects suggest suppression syndrome Table ug/dl Vale values York